"Jade" patterns on painted ceramics of the Neolithic era

Chzhen Qingyan PhD in Art History Postgraduate student, Department of Art History, Saint Petersburg Stieglitz State Academy of Art and Design 191187, Russia, g. Saint Petersburg, per. Solyanoi, 13 qingyanzheng@126.com

The history of the use of jade in decorative and applied arts in prehistoric China predates the history of ceramics. The ancient Chinese believed that the gods are in the sky, and majestic mountains can not only bring people's prayers to the sky, but also bring people a powerful force for survival. Therefore, they used the stones to build the altars needed to touch the heavens to contact the deities. Similar processes took place in the Sumerian civilization, whose representatives erected ziggurats, or among the Maya, in whose culture jade was also known as "green gold" ^{[1, p. 66]}, or in ancient Egypt. There, temples were considered a ladder for communication with the sky. At the same time, the idea of stone worship arose. Thus, in Sekharia Sitchin's book "Earth Chronicles IV (Part II)", the pyramid is directly considered as a "stairway to heaven". It contains a description of a "magnificent stone" that can "communicate between heaven and earth, between the ocean and the planet" ^{[2, p. 163]}.

In primitive China, jade became such a "magnificent stone". "Jade" is a broad concept denoting a stone that can represent jade as a specific mineral or jadeite close to it, as well as agate, turquoise, quartz, Shoushan and Siyu stone, chicken blood stone and other rocks. Moreover, in Chinese art, preference was given to rare jadeite, which had a richer color, stable physical properties, gloss, high refractive index, as well as the necessary specific gravity and hardness. At the same time, all these stones were subjected to relatively the same treatment, and the products from them were similar in shape and decoration. Carvings in the form of geometric, plant and zoomorphic patterns, as well as spectacular eight-pointed stars were applied to their surface. The demand and prevalence of such products, as well as their complex semantics and meaning led to the fact that these ornaments were repeated by Chinese potters in the design of the bodies of ceramic vessels. The presented article is devoted to the comparison of patterns on jade products and pottery, which were made by Chinese craftsmen during the Neolithic period. Its methodology is determined by the specifics of the studied material, namely Chinese painted ceramics of the Neolithic period, which is subjected to descriptive art criticism, comparative analysis of various methods of decoration, correlation with the peculiarities of culture and symbolism of that period. The formation of the methodological apparatus and analytical base was facilitated by the appeal to the works of a number of Russian researchers, in particular T.I. Kashina ^[3], M.M. Bogachikhin ^[4], M.E. Kravtsova ^[5], D.A. Vladimirova ^[6], M.A. Neglinskaya ^[7], V.G. Belozerova ^[8], etc.

In China, in addition to large altars, there were "yucong" () regalia, which were made of jade and were octagonal regalia with a round tubule in the middle. They were characteristic of the Liangzhu culture. In the Hongshan culture, "bi" were performed — flat round jade regalia with a hole in the center, which were used in traditional rituals. They symbolized the sky. Their name literally translates from Chinese as "blue-green heavenly jade" ^[9]. "Tsung" is like a long staircase, and "bi" is like a stone tomb. In primitive China, tombs were made of stone, resembling mounds ^[10]. It is noteworthy that in the same Hongshan culture there was jade ware, which resembled the regalia of "bi" in shape, but when viewed from above it looked like painted ceramic bowls of the Miaodigou culture ^{[11, p. 289]}. The mouth of these vessels is round, and the pattern of petals, consisting of triangles with arcs, forms a square. This technique reflects the ancient idea that the sky is round and the earth is square.

The development of the art of making jade products in China has passed through four stages: the initial period, the period of God, king and people. The book "The History of Jade" states that "small white stone beads of the same size and a yellow-green oval perforated beautiful stone were found at the cave man's parking lot in Beijing, which is one of the earliest records of the discovery of jade." ^{[11, p. 32, 35]} Jade was also found among the pottery in the excavations. In the initial period, the stone began to gradually enter the space of decorative creativity. The shape and decorations of the objects were closely related to religion. They were considered a talisman right up to the Hamudu culture and even up to the time of the cavemen on the territory of modern Beijing ^{[11, p. 30]}.

Ornaments in the ceramics of the Davenkou culture

1. A pattern in the shape of an eight-pointed star.

Figure 1. A bowl with a painting in the form of eight-pointed stars. Painted ceramics of the Davenkou culture. Neolithic. Excavations: Tai'an, Shandong (1978). Shandong Museum.

Figure 2. A pot with a painting in the form of eight-pointed stars. Painted ceramics of the Davenkou culture. Neolithic. Nanjing Museum.

A vessel with an ornament in the form of a star with eight rays was found in Davenkou (Taiwan). The diameter of the mouth and neck of the product is 26 cm, the diameter of the bottom is 14.5 cm, the total height is 28.4 cm. It is terracotta in color, has a round and beveled rim, a deep body and a high leg with a wide base. The body and leg are covered with a layer of dark red clay. The rim is decorated with a white pattern consisting of a crescent and several vertical lines. White images are also applied to the body, which stand out in contrast against a dark red background. The octagonal stars are separated from each other by two vertical white lines. Two rings of brown lines are drawn at the base of the bowl leg, and a pattern in the form of shells is applied on top of them with white paint (see Figure 1, 2). Similar ornaments appeared on many objects of that time and symbolized the boundlessness of heaven and earth ^[12].

Figure 3, 4. Plate 87M4:30. Jade. Neolithic. Found in Tomb No. 4 in Lingjiatan, Anhui Province. The collection of the Museum of the Forbidden City of Gugun. Length 11.4 cm, width 8.3 cm, thickness 1 cm.

The 87M4:30 jade plate was discovered in a Neolithic tomb in Lingjiatan (Anhui) and is a fragment of a prefabricated shell of an artificial turtle ^{[13, p. 89]} (see Figure 3, 4). It has a length of 11.4 cm, a width of 3 cm and a thickness of 1 cm. Its surface is yellow with numerous holes at the edges. The carving represents the sun with eight rays-arrows diverging in different directions. This pattern is also similar to the solar signs on the ceramics of the Yangshao culture. It is divided into an outer and an inner circle, and the latter is an octagon, as in the Davenkou bowl. Concentric circles and four arrow beams extend from the outer circle and point to the four corners of the plate. There is an assumption that such an octogram is associated with astrology and the ancient calendar ^[14]. However, until now, the meaning of this pattern is not reliably known.

The jade plate has a square shape, and the center of the circle is at the intersection point of the diagonals of the square. There are eight holes on the dorsal shield of the jade turtle, and five on the plastron. After adding up the parts of the shell, there will be five in the middle, and four on both sides, which corresponds to the number of plates of real turtles. The eight directions on the jade board indicate orientation, and there are five drilled holes on the left and right sides.

Figure 5. Lo-shui schemes.

The Chinese theory of Five Elements uses five numbers, including permutation and combination of numbers within ten, which creates interesting combinations and meanings. According to the Luo shui scheme (), holes 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are placed in the upper left corner, and 6, 7, 8 and 9 are placed in the lower right. Thus, the order of Wen-wang is reflected, which was seen by the mythological hero on the shell of a turtle from the river of the same name. The numbers from 1 to 9 are the numbers of changes in heaven and earth, which are reflected in other Chinese spatial-numerical schemes.

In Luo Shui, the sum of three numbers of vertical, horizontal and oblique lines is equal to fifteen (see Figure 5) ^[13]. Low is the law of the ordered functioning of the world and the state of ultimate equilibrium. The sum of all straight and oblique numbers in it is the same ^[26]. The eight-pointed star in the center of the plate resembles a pattern on a zoomorphic figure of the Lingjatan culture (see Figure 6) ^[15]. The eagle has two pig heads instead of open wings. Wang Renxiang wrote in the book "The Art of the Tide in Prehistoric China — painted ceramics of Miaodigou, culture and Art Research" that "this bird is a celestial pole and is associated with the meaning of stability and rotation of a celestial body" ^[7]. The image of a pig among the ancient Chinese could well be associated with the constellation Ursa Major.

Figure 6. Zoomorphic figure "Pig-eagle". Jade. Neolithic (About 5500-5300 years ago). Found in Tomb No. 4 in Lingjiatan, Anhui Province. Anhui Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics. Length 8.4 cm, width 3.5 cm, thickness 0.3 cm.

In the later Hongshan culture, there was also a tradition of creating painted ceramics and a fairly advanced technology for processing jade. The pattern in the form of an eight-pointed star already reflected the ancient cosmology and the five elements that make up the world. It has become a symbol of wisdom, whether it is a pattern on painted ceramics or a carving in jade.

2. A pattern in the form of luminaries and mountains

In prehistoric times, the Chinese preferred to build temples or altars on high places in order to communicate directly with the heavenly forces. In the Hongshan and Liangzhu cultures, the "tsung" regalia, which were mentioned above, were also a sacrificial object. The longest vessel, resembling the shape of "tsung", is in the collection of the National Museum of China, — zun (?). It has a height of 59 cm, a diameter of 38 cm, and at the base — 8.5 cm. The product is made of gray clay. The upper part of the body is engraved with "patterns of the sun, moon and mountains" (see Figure 8) ^{[11, p. 74]}. The vessel was discovered in Shandong Province on the Lingyang River in layers belonging to the Davenkou culture.

Figure 7. Jade "tsung" with patterns of the sun, moon and mountains. Liangzhu culture. Length 38.2 cm . The Metropolitan Museum (Beijing Museum).

Figure 8. Gray Tsung ceramics with images of the sun, moon and mountains. Found in Jiuxiang, Shandong. Shandong Provincial Museum.

Perhaps the pattern applied to the walls of the vessel symbolizes the union of the sun and the moon, which occurs in the mountains, and is a visualization of the prayer for fertility. Interestingly, this "tsung" from the Liangzhu culture also has an image of the "Fusang" tree — a solar tree that, according to beliefs, leads to heaven. At the top sits a phoenix bird, capable of moving between worlds. Another vessel "zun" from the Davenkou culture also has a symbol similar to a tree engraved on it. There is an assumption that for the ancient Chinese, "the tree of life is not only a pattern, but also a universe that really exists, but in three—dimensional space" ^[16].

In the Late Neolithic era, people formed a worldview based on the idea of the unity of such kingdoms as heaven, earth, man and the gods. According to those ideas, there were also people who could move between realms — a kind of wizards. Their path was symbolically depicted in the form of a ladder. For example, such images contain traditional regalia "tsung" ^[17]. All the patterns associated with the tree of life include a meaning close to the idea of the infinity of the universe. Luminaries are a natural phenomenon caused by various cycles of the Earth's rotation ^[18]. In China, they still believe that when they appear together, favorable events will happen to the country. Moreover, the images of the luminaries have become a pictographic sign, which has been used since ancient times to record what was happening in the world, including astronomical observations. The latter were closely associated with polytheism and animistic religious beliefs developing in the Neolithic.

Features of ceramics in the Hongshanmiao, Ruzhou, Hongshan and Davenkou cultures

1. "Double "bi"" in Neolithic ceramics of China.

Hongshan Temple is located in the southeast of Hongshanmiao Village of Qilin Township, about 2.5 km northeast of Ruzhou City, Henan Province. Judging by the analysis of the excavated remains, this place belongs to the Miaodigou period of the Yangshao culture ^{[19, p. 7]}. The tomb of Hongshanmiao (No. M1) has a length of 6.30 meters and a width of 3.50 meters. Hongshanmiao is the earliest and largest tomb with an urn and a coffin discovered in China, as well as a symbol of the painted pottery art of Yangshao.

There are many objects depicted in the tomb of Hongshan Temple. Almost every one of them is painted with large patterns. Ceramic vessels painted with patterns of black, white, red and other colors attract attention. Coloring pigments are made of natural minerals, applied to clay blanks, polished and fired in a furnace. In addition to these ornaments, there are also three-dimensional figures of animals and people. Birds or bears attached to the lid are images associated with totems. There are also jugs with "patches" in the form of lizards on the body ^[20].

In the Hongshanmiao Temple there are many patterns and products that somehow resemble objects that were made of jade at that time. Most often they are painted in the same color, white or dark brown. However, there are also multicolored ones. There are patterns of red color, and they are usually painted on the outer walls of ceramics. So, at the bottom of the neck of the cylinder with a large neck (W60:1) there are three curved pattern lines. Two rings and patterns in the shape of "8" are painted white and are located between two plates in the middle of the body. The height of the drawing is 19.2 cm, width 6-8 cm ^{[20, p. 47]}.

Studies have shown that when the ancient Chinese just started making jade products, there was no strict regulation of the shape of objects, and in particular, the ratio of the shape of the corolla and the base of the vessel. In Neolithic ceramics appeared conventionally referred to by the author of the article as "double"bi"". For the first time such vessels began to occur in the Hongshan culture, and then in Davenkou ^{[21, p. 215]}. The upper and lower parts of such products are not harmonious enough, although in Davenkou they are definitely more symmetrical (see Figure 9, 10). In the ceramics found in the Hongshanmiao Monument of the Yangshao culture during the Miaodigou period, the "double" bi" on the painted ceramics is close to the style of the Hongshan culture.

Figure 9. "Double "bi"". Neolithic. Hongshan culture. Excavations of the Nyuhelians. Museum of Liaoning Province.

Figure 10. "Double "B"". Neolithic. Davenkou culture. Ningyang County, Shandong Province

2. Jade comb.

Figure 11. A fragment of a vessel (painted ceramics) W69:1 with images of ridges.

Two jugs with a wide mouth (W32) were found in Hongshanmiao:1) and (W69:1) images on the rim of the ridges drawn on the outer walls. The handle of such a comb on a pottery jug W32:1 has a square shape. It is distinguished by a relatively small number of teeth of the same thickness. The handle of the jade comb on the pottery jug W69:1 is rectangular, with short teeth, and more massive (Figure 11).

The earliest jade comb discovered in China was discovered in Shanxi. Its back part has a rectangular shape. A large number of jade and ivory combs have been found in the Hongshan and Davenkou cultures. Jade-lined and ivory combs have also been found in the Liangzhu culture. The shape of the products was half of an inverted staircase with a height of 10.5 cm. The ivory comb is 6.4 cm wide, 4.7 cm from the bottom, and its thickness is 0.6 cm. Matte patterns are applied to the upper and lower sides of this ridge, and the lower part is trimmed and polished to obtain even teeth ^[9].

The shape of the ridges is similar to the patterns painted on a large clay jug in Hongshanmiao. The existence of such patterns projected from objects that could be used during life by those who rested in tombs, apparently, is due to the desire to make life after death a semblance of the earth.

3. The theme of clouds in Neolithic ceramics.

Jade products in the shape of a cloud are the most important artistic element in the Hongshan culture. There are several types of such images, but invariably they are close to the form "?". Objects in the shape of a cloud are usually "rectangular or square-round shaped plates with threads on both sides, and some only in front; hook-shaped plates with a polished and decorated surface" ^{[16, p. 116]}. The pattern of jade tableware is the same as on the painted ceramics of Hongshanmiao (W117:1). The drawn pattern also has the shape "?". The ends of two parallel lines in it are directed outward from the center, and in the middle there are three points that can also be considered as decoration.

Figure 11. A sketch of a ceramic product from the Hongshan culture, which as an ornament has a pattern in the form of "?".

Figure 12. Jade product in the shape of a cloud. Found in Tombs No. 2, No. 16 of the Lingyuan Niuheliang excavation in 1979. Liaoning Provincial Museum. Length 22.5, width 11.2, thickness 0.8 cm.

This is consistent with the shape of jade products in the form of "?" in the Hongshan culture (Figure 11, 12). The overall shape is also a rectangle, and the four corners are symmetrical outward. At the same time, the recess in the central part is very clear. The shape of the cloud is a unique and distinctive type of object in the jade of the Hongshan culture. It is found only in large tombs. Similar patterns on the Hongshanmiao pottery in Ruzhou of the Yangshao culture can be considered as a result of the fusion of different cultures under the influence of the Hongshan culture.

"Stork, fish and stone axe" from Yan village

Figure 13. A jug from Yan village, Ruzhou, Henan Province with images of a stork, fish and a stone axe. Painted ceramics. Neolithic. National Museum of China.

Figure 14. Jade axe "Yuye". Liangzhu Culture (ca. 3300 – 2200 BC). Museum of Ancient Culture and Art.

Figure 15. Jade axe-a cleaver with a double hole. Liangzhu culture (ca. 3300 – 2200 BC). Found during the excavations of Fanshan in 1986. M14: 221. Liangzhu Museum.

The patterns in the form of a stork, a fish and a stone axe found on a jug in Yan Village, Ruzhou, Henan Province, are among the most revealing works of art discovered in the Dahe culture. The local culture seems to have developed under the influence of the Miaodigou culture. However, in addition to painted pottery, characteristic of the Miaodigou culture, there are also unique works. For example, this is ceramics with an exquisite white background, on which the paintings are applied ^{[1, p. 155]}.

The jug "Stork, fish and stone axe" from the Dahe culture has a height of 37 cm and a width of 44 cm. In the left part of the body there is a white stork standing in profile and holding a white fish in its mouth. Next to it is a stone axe with a handle, almost the same height as the stork. These images are outlined with dark lines (see Figure 13) ^[22]. This painted ceramic jug is a funerary object from the tomb, so the product is considered a realistic depiction of stories from the life of the one for whom it was intended ^[23].

Many stone axes, including jade axes, have been found in Neolithic China, which are not only perfectly polished, but also have almost no traces of use. They are called Yue(?). In ancient times they were used as an honor guard or for burial. They are widespread in China. The jade battle axe as an exclusive item demonstrating the high social status of the owner is often found in the Davenkou and Yangshao cultures of the Miaodigou, Lingjatan and Hongshan periods (see Figure 14, 15). Scientific studies have shown that the handle of these jade axes should be similar to the one depicted on the "diagram of the stork fish and the stone axe". ^{[24, p. 69]}.

The Face of God with twisted eyes

The image of a face with curved eyes is more common on jade products of the Longshan and Liangzhu cultures. All kinds of jade products in the form of clouds with eyes in the Hongshan culture are understood as the eyes of the gods. Tsung (?) is the most revered jade in the Liangzhu culture. The jade cong of the Liangzhu culture is equally large at the top and small at the bottom. There are many variants of patterns on these products: a half-animal face and a half-god-man, a full god-man and an animal face; a simplified god-man and an animal face, etc. ^{[25, p. 141]}.

On most products with images of the eyes of the gods, the latter tend to the shape of a circle. One pupil is inscribed inside, less often two. However, the general style is somewhat different from the depiction of gods with twisted eyes in the Longshan culture ^{[7, p. 492]}. Jade products of the northern Hongshan culture have a drawing of the face of a god with twisted eyes. The same pattern can be seen in the Miaodigou period of the Yangshao culture and on the painted ceramics of the Davenkou culture. He is not only a sacred symbol of the Liangzhu culture, but also the embodiment of theocracy and royal power, which allowed him to spread so widely ^{[25, p. 141]}. A similar kind of theocracy flourished in the Yellow River basin, so painted ceramics in this area have images of the same twisted eyes. It is obvious that this shows the process of interpenetration of cultures of different regions and periods in the Neolithic era.

The primitive art of China has come down to us in the form of unique artifacts, presented primarily in the form of stone and ceramic products. Most of them are purely practical, but there are also those who have an uncomfortable shape or a strange decor at first glance, but even their appearance has a definite purpose. Chinese archaeologist Li Xinwei believes that the appearance of such products was the result of the internalization of chance (due to the supernatural being he likes to portray, timeless and independent of the environment quality) and the externalization of the process and purpose of creation, turning into a sign and symbol ^{[26, pp. 28, 29]}.

Conclusion

Artifacts of the Yangshao culture were first discovered in the villages of Yangshao, Mianchi and Henan, and was also widespread in the Yellow River basin 4300-6700 years ago. At the same time, jade is rare, but it was already easy to make products from it ^{[27, p. 87]}. There was no custom in Yangshao culture to use jade, although the Miaodigou period was the most prosperous stage of Yangshao's development. Jade products were not so popular in the Yellow River basin either. But in the northeastern region centered in the Liaohe River Basin and the southeastern region centered in the Taihu Basin, it was in demand. However, no culture can develop in isolation. Moreover, the regions absorbed and transmitted the material culture to the surrounding areas, and this happened in the case of jade products and, in particular, with regard to their purpose. They were created for religious rites, sacrifices, as ritual objects, sometimes being used in everyday life. This naturally led to the fusion of jade and pottery culture along the coast of China.

Hongshanmiao painted ceramics are mainly decorated with various funerary symbols, and the painting technology is highly developed. In addition to images, such vessels are distinguished from those used in everyday life by changes in shape: the lid was specially repurposed, and a hole was made at the bottom so that the soul of the deceased could easily enter and exit ^[28]. Most of these vessels in all cultures were "bi", in which such a hole was made.

In the Hongshan culture, the use of jade was common. Moreover, due to the export of products made of this stone, representatives of this culture had an impact on their neighbors. A similar effect was expressed in the patterns with clouds that appeared on the painted ceramics of Ruzhou in Hongshanmiao. During the 1500-year development of the Hongshan culture, jade was not only an important carrier of culture and religion, but also a symbol of theocratic power. The Hongshan and Liangzhu cultures also have an ancient history of the use of jade, which is associated with the sphere of communication between the highest nobility of the tribes. When the Yangshao culture absorbed and adopted the custom of using jade from its neighbors, jade products began to be placed in tombs. True, it was not carefully processed, but still decorated with patterns. Subsequently, the Yangshao culture would use more accessible images of similar patterns not in the form of jade carvings, but on ceramics, preserving their spiritual meanings, which reflected the connection between heaven and earth and the relationship between people and gods. According to the belief of the ancient Chinese, the vessel was filled with divinity carrying the soul, which was reflected in the form, and the fusion of heaven and earth was expressed in signs in the decor. Rare and valuable jade products became a model for Chinese masters of the Neolithic period, enriching the symbolic system of paintings on ceramics and forming the distinctive features of the pottery art of that period.