Problematization of modern urban design

Barsukova Natalia Ivanovna ORCID: 0000-0001-9222-4885 Doctor of Art History Professor, Department of Drawing and Painting, National Institute of Design, Moscow 115054, Russian Federation, Moscow, Academician Tupolev Embankment str., 15, p. 29 bars_natali@mail.ru Other publications by this author

In this article, an attempt is made to bring together the conceptual trends of urban environment design that exist in different countries to create a unified terminology and prepare the basis for the formation of a unified theory of urban design for architects, designers and researchers. Along with the only existing term "urban design" abroad, the article uses all its Russian-language analogues: urban design, urban design, urban environment design. It is focused on functional processes, procedural-spatial and material-physical parameters of the environment, takes into account the behavioral situation.

 The provisions relevant to the current state of urban design were taken as a basis: the city as a meeting place, the variety of types of urban life, the constant updating of design forms to create a comfortable urban environment. These provisions contribute to the design concepts of urban design for the organization of a modern multidimensional subject-spatial environment.

The main trends of urban designThe attitude to the design of the urban environment is changing rapidly, and the quality of urban life is becoming an important topic for urban design projects.

The needs and requests of citizens come out in the first place. Since the creation of cities was primarily associated with the conduct of production activities on a specific territory, the formation of a hospitable urban environment with the inclusion of innovative technologies is a new task for project activities. From the extensive capture of space, a person moves to the intensification of its development and transformation, taking into account new value attitudes, in the center of which is a person with his needs and everyday emotions.

Various aspects of urban studies are increasingly becoming the subject of scientific research by many specialists – urban planners, architects, designers of the urban environment and urban landscape. These are numerous problems related to the coexistence of public and private transport, functional zoning of cities with suburban sleeping areas, environmental pollution of cities, the problem of the formation of urban design and determining its place in the project culture ^[1-4]. V. Glazychev analyzing the latest experience of building city development programs in their economic, environmental, social and cultural aspects, shows urbanization and the development of the urban environment in dynamics, argues that the urban environment closest to the ideal is not a creation of fantasy, facing an uncertain future, but real experience accumulated at different historical times ^[5].

Urban design itself is in a state of uncertainty, as it is interpreted by many researchers in different ways. Moreover, urban design is criticized for the lack of a substantial theory and lack of attention to topics of urban significance or social content ^[6]. The theory of urban design is criticized for being incoherent and inconsequential. S. Marshall suggests that this is partly due to the fact that the theory of urban design does not have a completely scientific basis. He explores the relationship between science and pseudoscience and wonders to what extent the theory of urban design can be called pseudoscientific ^[6].

A. Cuthbert offers a theoretical understanding of urban design based on political economy, various ways of conceptualizing the city, for example, through aesthetics and the art of designing cities ^{[7, 8]}. A. Lefebvre comprehends the very concept of urban space, which appears as a single dynamic whole, where relationships between people, communities and institutions are important ^[9].

K. Ellard notes the negative impact of urbanization on human health, which invariably prompts to revise the principles of habitat arrangement in order to harmonize ^[10]. He emphasizes how important smooth curves are for us, which are important to consider in relation to architecture and smooth routes, the shortest paths that a person prefers. Nevertheless, many urban projects still demonstrate a rigid structure of walking routes, naively believing that a person will follow them. All this contradicts the nature of human nature. The practice of urban design has been able to form a characteristic identity for itself, which manifests itself on a variety of scales – from the scale of a block or street to the scale of urban and regional landscapes. These objects are perceived and designed as large design forms and spaces ^[1]. Even an entire city can be the object of a design concept if it is designed and built immediately from scratch ^[11].

The study of the problem of humanization of the modern urban environment in the theory of urban design for the further development of environmental design is considered in the context of the problem of human behavioral aspects in the urban environment ^[12-14], from the perspective of the scale of urban architecture to man and social activity ^[15]. Human-oriented design can contribute to strategic innovation, which justifies the special attention of urban design to the creation of open public spaces and pedestrian zones ^[2].

Urban design finds itself in an existential struggle between the disciplines of architecture and planning. Against this background, the potential role of the figurative component of urban design is often ignored and downplayed.The issues of reorientation to art as part of urban design are also given a lot of attention in the literature, as well as the possibility of the artistic aspect to play a more definite role in urban design. Urban design is presented as a synthesis of arts or considered art concerning the composition of spaces and buildings, paying attention to visual aesthetics and urban symbolism ^{[4, 9, 16]}. In this context, the interpretation of urban design as an integrative art appears, the artistic aspects of urban design are analyzed and refutations of critical remarks addressed to it are proposed ^{[4, 6]}.

In The Image of the City, K. Lynch defined the concept of imagery or legibility of physical form by the structure of the relationships between the five elements: these are paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks ^[17]. His theory of the "image of a place" is continued in many modern projects, however, the idea of creating a "spirit of a place" is interpreted in different ways: as the placement of places of public use within a community and as the preservation of the atmosphere of a place during the modernization of urban space ^{[18, 19]}.

Urban design can also be considered from a civil and socio-political point of view, since urban design deals with the location of space and the public sphere ^{[15, 20]}. This aspect could be called "civic urbanism". Regarding the changes reflected in the level of social interactions, L. Wirth notes the following: "When the number of community residents exceeds several hundred people, each of the community members loses the opportunity to know everyone else personally." This fact has already become a problem for many modern cities, where there are no appropriate conditions for walking ^[20]. It should be noted that this aspect is of great importance for the forms of application of urban design, as it contributes to the overall indicators of a favorable comfortable urban environment ^[21].

The methodology of urban design is devoted to works in which the emphasis is placed on the user and collective planning processes ^{[5, 22]}. The need to involve citizens in the design process was first tested by G. Sanoff, an expert in the field of participatory design. Using the example of cities such as Bengalou (Australia), Nanao (Japan), Richmond (Virginia, USA) and many others, he demonstrated the effectiveness of participatory participation of residents in the formation of the urban environment. For example, workshops were created with the involvement of residents, representatives of administrations, activists and other parties interested in the process to identify problems of territories and ways to solve them on the basis of joint decision-making. Effective interaction occurs when combining the competencies of both professionals and ordinary citizens. In the process of participation, residents feel their involvement, their contribution to the complex and important process of designing their urban environment ^[22].

The axiological aspect for the theory and methodology of urban environment design is becoming increasingly important. The use of the concept of value as a "disciplined representation of meaning" is intended to provoke a discussion away from the measurement of economic value. The value can be expressed in comparison ("this option is better or worse than this option") or nominally ("what is it"), which allows us to take into account the importance of urban design in broader discourses of social value and spatial configuration. Ethics is an important aspect in determining the value and value (axiological) approach in urban design ^[3].

And finally, the theory of urban design was formulated in the form of a new concept – the environmental design paradigm, a holistic approach to environmental issues, where the basic principles of this approach were developed from the standpoint of harmonization and optimization of the urban environment, due to the understanding of urban design as a culture-forming sphere of the modern world ^[23]. The environmental paradigm reflects the general philosophical reorientation of culture at the end of the last century and actually emphasizes the change in the value system in society. It is based on a new look at the design object, which is seen not as a separate thing isolated in space or an environmental complex, but as an integral fragment of reality, the surrounding world – open and dynamic ^[23]. From the standpoint of the environmental paradigm, new topics for the design of the urban environment are studied: the reaction by design means to the atomization of society, the creation of design forms in the urban environment for tactile and visual human experiences, etc. ^{[12, 13]}.

Another relevant topic for urban design is related to one of the interdisciplinary problems of the XXI century – the relationship between man and nature. The issues of ecology and preservation of regional features of the natural environment are becoming relevant for project culture in general, and for urban design in particular ^[24]. In the context of environmental ideas, in many countries there has been a tendency to transform former industrial territories located within the city into an environmentally friendly, usually recreational environment. Former railway stations, abandoned railway viaducts and quarries are being transformed into landscaped esplanades and park areas.

Largely influenced by the provisions of sustainable development, the methods of urban design have also changed. The principles of sustainable development are covered in detail on the example of American and Russian cities ^{[15, 26]}. These are minimal impact on the environment of development and its use; environmentally friendly technologies, respect for the environment and awareness of the value of natural systems; energy efficiency; reduction in the use of non-renewable energy sources; increase in local production; walking more, driving less. Currently, it is considered unacceptable to design complexes and systems in an urban environment that destroys the landscape.

Under the influence of the ideology of sustainable urban development, a whole trend called Landscape urbanism has emerged as awareness of the environmental problems of the city. Its founders are considered to be Ch . Wildheim (Charles Waldheim), James Corner (James Corner) and Mohsen Mostafavi (Mohsen Mostafavi), P. Connolly. Landscape urbanism is understood as a means of reviving the landscape and organizing the urban order of a modern city. He is characterized by the following ideas: the use of horizontals in the landscape, rather than relying on vertical structures, orientation to a more organic use of infrastructures, the emergence of structures from more substantial than their physical form, the adaptation of techniques to the environment, ecology.His theory is based on an understandable system of harmonious interaction between nature and a civilized city.

Such projects of landscape urbanism as: Millennium Park (Chicago, Illinois), Osambashi International Passenger Terminal (Yokohama, Japan), Olympic Sculpture Park (Seattle, Washington), Beijing Capital International Airport (Beijing, China) convince that the landscape approach at the level of urban planning structure allows to achieve the necessary geographical connectivity of the territory, which facilitates the process of perception of the urban landscape. However, the scale of the design is determined by the size of the urban structure and large natural elements, such as rivers, valleys, lakes, around which the new system is being assembled. To create it, abandoned urban areas, wastelands, territories previously used as industrial, port zones, but which have lost their function, are often used – but they all gather around a single axis – a large natural object.

Opponents of landscape urbanism are supporters of new urbanism, a movement that emerged in the 80s in the United States, which implies the revival of a small compact pedestrian city as opposed to automobile suburbs. The basic principles of the new urbanism are the rejection of the "suburban" lifestyle. Cities and districts built in accordance with the principles of new urbanism are small, compact, where there are all the services necessary for residents (shops, household services, etc.) located at a walking distance from housing. The new urbanism originated in the USA and became the most widespread there. However, examples of projects created in the spirit of new urbanism are now appearing in other countries, in particular in the UK Poundbury, Australia, Canada. In Russia, this movement is not popular for historical and geographical reasons – vast territories and, as a rule, the spread of cities require other approaches, it is impossible to do without public transport to achieve comfort in such cities. Both directions, however, are urban planning concepts, at the level of planning and development of cities in general.

Largely due to the underestimation of urban design, new and new problems in the context of urban environment design continue to increase. Ultimately, cities have a complex context within which problems existing in the urban environment have to be solved.

For modern design practice, the joint work of designers from different countries is becoming the norm: many projects of the urban environment are created and implemented by international teams as a result of international competitions for master plans and key objects.  For example, Zaryadye Park in Moscow was built in 2014-2017 by a consortium led by the architectural bureau Diller Scofidio + Renfro (New York, USA), with landscape architects Hargreaves Associates (New York, USA) and Moscow urbanists Citymakers. Teamwork is impossible without a common theoretical basis of urban design and its methodology.

This suggests that the theory of urban design should develop common approaches acceptable to different countries, taking into account different climates, mentalities and national traditions. In this article, this attempt is made taking into account the basic theoretical provisions of urban design and a strategy for the development of urban design and a design methodology is proposed.

Urban design or urban environment design is defined by us as a discipline whose theory is fragmented around a specific place, people and processes, taking into account national and cultural codes. Urban design is a people–oriented design of individual fragments of the urban environment, the starting point of which is the needs of urban residents, while various human–oriented design methods are used - from ergonomic to axiological.

Urban Design strategyThe influence of many modern concepts of urban design has made it inappropriate to use the traditional perception of the city as an extrapolation of architectural models and metaphors to understand the metropolis of the XXI century.

  These forces and currents include discontinuities and shifts in the architectonic logic of the traditional urban form, accompanying environmental, infrastructural or economic changes. Many representatives of the project culture adhere to the idea that the quality of the human environment has a direct impact on the quality of his life, both in a closed, internal environment and in an open urban environment.

Modern projects to improve the urban environment around the world are being implemented in rather problematic urban areas – objects with complex infrastructure, complex systems of structures, remediation of polluted and industrial sites, improvement of the habitat, solving issues of transport communications. Obviously, they are unique in relation to each project and each city, and solutions should be sought in the formation of an original design concept for a particular place in a particular individual case.

In other words, the spatial structures of the urban environment should no longer be defined by the framework of predefined functions or strive for isolation, but instead should be integrated into the fabric of the city. Many designers are now striving to integrate urban architectural and landscape forms. Such projects should be adapted to the inevitable changes in the functions and goals assigned to them, which are generated by economic changes and the evolution of land use. For example, laid out on the site of a former meat market and slaughterhouse in Paris, the La Villette Park by architect B. Chumi set a new typology in urban and landscape design. Abandoning the nature–architecture dilemma, the park has incorporated hybrid forms that combine the creations of man and nature. Unlike the parks of the past, the landscape is a flexible space that recognizes the variability of the public territory.

The creation of compensating nature corners in the city is not limited only to the creation of natural oases on former industrial territories. An effective method of design design for the creation of urban ecosystems is the landscape and park transformation of coastal areas, including through the expansion of recreational spaces.

The analysis of individual projects makes it possible to understand the priorities and directions of modern urban design. An archetypal example, which in recent years has often appeared as an ideal example of urban space reconstruction, one of the best public spaces in America, which turned the old subway line into a fashionable and sought–after place - the High Line Park – extends over the non-working line of the elevated railway in the western part of Manhattan. The project of Field Operations, DS+R and Pete Udolf has preserved the spirit of a natural park, which arose as a result of overgrowth of paths over decades of downtime, and has ennobled it with paved walking paths, benches, lawns and gardens. The city in its most industrial and industrial part suddenly retreated before nature.

Much earlier, a similar idea was implemented in Paris in the Promenade Plante walking area, which was designed on a former railway viaduct of the XIX century and stretched for five kilometers from the Place de la Bastille to the Bois de Vincennes. Such a transformation of one of the railway tracks returned an extensive linear space to the residents of the adjacent neighborhoods in a new quality - as green areas, as a place for walking. The glazed arches of the ground level of the former viaduct became the location of art galleries and design bureaus.

 The Zaryadye Nature and Landscape Park in Moscow was designed by the same bureau as the High-line – DillerScofidio+Renfro. He demonstrates that the mechanical transfer of the concept of "wild urbanism" from New York to the historical center of Moscow was not successful in every sense, since the density of buildings, materials and mentality of citizens, and most importantly the historical context were not taken into account. The concept was criticized not by chance, because it does not take into account the archaeology of the site, the ancient layout of streets and preserved objects – nine temples with the status of monuments of federal significance are located nearby. UNESCO recommendations and legal restrictions of the security zone around the Kremlin were ignored, the system of the urban-planning ensemble of the center of Moscow and visual-landscape links with neighboring historical districts were violated.

The main idea of the park is based on the close interaction of the natural and urban environment, forming a new type of public space based on contrast, fitting one into the other - vegetation of various climatic and landscape zones of Russia is integrated into the historical center of the city. But this project is called anti-ecological, since Zaryadye is absolutely not inscribed in the historical, cultural and natural landscape. The history of this place had its own meanings that were not developed – before it was a unique shopping area with ethnic neighborhoods. Opponents of this project rightly believe that such a modern park, which opens a new stage in urban design, could be implemented in any other place, and the quarter near the walls of the Moscow Kremlin required more thoughtful and responsible approaches.

One of the permanent landmarks of urban design – the desire for a modern and original style of urban objects and forms – also turned out to be not quite appropriate here. A positive aspect of the project concept of the Zaryadye Park and one of the important tasks of urban design in general is the desire to create open public urban spaces with year-round functionality, because in northern cities many recreation areas work seasonally.

An original example of a modern public space organized by design means based on the recreated historical landscape of ancient vineyards is the Bercy Park in Paris (Fig. 1). Another park in Paris also uses landscape and design to "talk" with visitors about the past of this place (Fig. 2).

Fig. 1. Parc de Bercy (Paris). Photo by the author 06. 08. 2007.

Fig. 2. Urban design activates human emotions – in the Citroen Park (The Andre Citroen Park, Paris). Photo by the author 10. 08. 2007.

In these projects, the emphasis is placed on the active role of man as an element of the urban environment in which he is included at the moment. When the dynamics of a person's movement is taken into account, it assumes the methodology of urban design, in which the urban environment is modeled in such a way that he does not feel in a state of distance and disinterest. The latter, in turn, determines the following design principles: the organization of a large-scale environment for a person, which will be perceived by him by all senses, including vision, hearing, smell, tactile-skin sensations, motor-motor reactions and covered not by panoramic, but by close or peripheral vision.

As a result of the research of the main theories of urban design, the following conclusion can be drawn about its strategy at the present stage, which is due to its problems (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Urban design strategy.

Understanding of the design object as a fragment of reality is based on the idea of the interconnectedness of the surrounding world, in the center of which is a person. Thus, in these projects, the object of design is not so much spaces and forms as a person in his internal reactions to these spaces and forms. The forms of the subject-spatial environment have a semantic load, carry information that helps sustainably maintain socially sanctioned types of behavior of people and consolidate cultural traditions. We are also talking about the possibility of reflecting in the appearance of the object, in its iconic form, various socio-aesthetic ideas, including its compliance with the stylistic direction.

So, the problems of urban design seem to be as follows:

– awareness of the ecological role of green spaces, integration of artificial environment objects with the natural landscape;

– preservation of the historical environment, local landscapes and cultural codes;

– identification of the original visual image of a particular place to create an identity of the environment;

– study of human behavioral models in an urban environment;

– orientation to the human scale and close vision of the citizen;

– study of the impact of details of the urban environment on its comfort: outdoor advertising, means of visual communication, navigation and orientation on the terrain;

– problems of organizing public spaces and recreational complexes, small locations (courtyards, squares, mini-markets, pedestrian zones, public transport stops), which are of great importance for the comfort of urban living;

– design of ergonomic urban furniture and outdoor equipment;

– an integrated approach to solving project tasks, the desire to create multifunctional open urban spaces for possible scenarios of pastime.

Thus, the existing contradictions between different theories and approaches can be solved by expanding the problem field of urban design by including environmental, anthropological and psychological issues to create innovative design projects. The strategy of urban design presented in the article and the methodology of design design of a comfortable environment for a person in a modern city, which summarizes the key modern scientific and applied points of view in this area, can be generalizing. It defines the connections, coincidences and complementarities between different conceptual approaches, the emphasis is on human-centered design and innovation. The strategy of urban design is focused on modeling a virtually new synthetic environment with increased comfort indicators without compromising the natural environment and assumes an integrated approach to the design of the urban environment.