Social and technological aspects of the European utopia of Modern times

Khasieva Mariya Alanovna ORCID: 0000-0002-0179-1874 PhD in Philosophy Senior Lecturer of Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education "Moscow Aviation Institute (National Research University)" 125993, Russia, Moscow, Volokolamsk highway, 4 m9288@inbox.ru Other publications by this author

The problem of the ideal state, formulated in Antiquity, was widely disclosed in the works of Renaissance thinkers, and then was perceived by philosophers of the New Time. At the same time, the social utopia was considered by the authors in an inextricable relationship with the technological and urban aspects of the formation of the human life environment. Among the most famous works of the utopia genre of Modern times is the unfinished novel by F. Bacon "New Atlantis" (1626), the dilogy of the French writer and philosopher Cyrano de Bergerac "Another World, or the states and empires of the Moon" (1657) and "Another World, or the states and empires of the Sun" (1662), an anti-religious utopia French writer Denis Veras "The History of the Sevarambes" (1677-1679), "Gulliver's Travels" (1762) by Jonathan Swift. Most of these works present the characteristic features of the satirical-fantastic genre, and in the center of the narrative of these novels-utopias of the XVII-XVIII centuries. – the question of the ideal social structure, as well as the system of ethical norms and morals accepted in society. ^[4]

In the XIX century, the spread of the ideas of socialism gave rise to the emergence of a separate genre of socialist utopia (S. Fourier, R. Owen, A. Saint-Simon, E. Bellamy). In the theories of utopian socialists, the way of life in communes was described in detail. ^[13] Charles Fourier formulated the concept of a phalanx – a house-palace intended for the commune. The carefully thought-out model of the phalanster consisted of a central part, a recreation and leisure area intended for dining rooms, living rooms, libraries and studios, and two wings where workshops, production facilities, guest rooms, meeting rooms with guests, as well as children's living rooms were to be located. The image of the phalanx became a kind of symbol of a socialist utopia, the first of many different models of commune houses designed subsequently. ^[17] 

The subject of this research is to comprehend the socio-cultural foundations of the evolution of ideas about an ideal society and an ideal city in European philosophy and literature. This study uses a comprehensive methodological approach, which includes a descriptive description of the concepts of various utopians, as well as a comparative analysis of utopian concepts of various authors.

The intellectual culture of the Enlightenment era is determined by a large number of ideological vectors and concepts, sometimes very heterogeneous. On the one hand, the orientation towards a rational approach to the study of the surrounding world, reliance on science and the search for the optimal scientific method lead Enlightenment thinkers to apply the same rational approach to issues of social structure and socio-economic theory. ^[12] The socio-economic theory of Adam Smith with very characteristic concepts of "economic man" and "natural order", the theory of the social contract, which became the subject of active discussions of philosophers of the XVII century, are clear evidence of this. ^[8]

The radical interpretation of this theory by T. Hobbes with the characteristic concept of "war of all against all" as the natural state of the human community finds objections in the philosophy of E. Shaftesbury and D. Locke. Shaftesbury believes that virtue is immanent in human nature, and is not something artificially introduced, and Locke insists on the concept of "natural law" and that the state should not restrict individual human freedom. On the contrary, it should serve to achieve the freedom of expression of all citizens.^[3]

Very similar ideas of social utopianism are expressed in the works of French enlighteners of the XVIII century, first of all, J.-J. Rousseau, the author of the utopian novel of education "Emile" (1762). The problem of the ideal state structure then partly found echoes in the theory of progress by N. Condorcet and A. Turgot. In his Discourses on World History (1751) Turgot writes about the relationship between urban sprawl and the general development of industry and science.  His own understanding of progress is presented in the works of the German philosopher of culture I. Herder. In "Ideas for the Philosophy of History" (1774), Herder writes that progress means, first of all, the transition from violent forms of establishing statehood to a reasonable, equal and free society. In his opinion, the growth and flourishing of cities contributed to the liberalization and enlightenment of European society.  ^[11]

Another significant vector of the European spiritual culture of the XVII century is the hedonistic denial of the sacral inviolability of moral norms and the subordinate position of man before God. These nihilistic ideas, shaped into a large-scale libertinage movement, are reflected in the English comedy of the Restoration era, French precision literature, penetrating into the philosophy of that era. Thus, "The Fable of Bees, or the Vices of Private Individuals — benefits for society" by B. Mandeville (1714) in an allegorical form proves that spending cuts and savings in the state budget can only bring damage to society, leading to the destruction of the state. Human vices are proclaimed the driving force of progress. In the English comedy of the Restoration era, a sharp satire on the mores of society at that time is mixed with a cynical denial of any moral foundations, giving rise to the effect of ethical nihilism. ^{[19, p. 92]}

Thus, the XVII century was characterized by irrationality and wasteful hedonism. This was reflected in the architecture of that time. Thus, L. Mumford wrote that "the most powerful hydraulic pumps of the XVII century were used in the fountains of the gardens of Versailles. Fischer von Erlach's steam pump, first used in Austria, was used not in mines, but in the gardens of the Belvedere Palace in Vienna." ^{[5, p. 114]} The phenomenon of libertinage is also associated with these processes and in many ways represents a kind of rehabilitation of human physicality, a response to a long period of repressive attitude towards it in the past. It was the anthropocentrism and anthropologism of Modern times that largely caused the flowering of the utopia genre in the literature and philosophy of that era.

In the genre of utopia, there are several key areas that focus on different aspects of the life of the state and society: this is a socio-political (or legislative) utopia, an economic utopia, a technological utopia. At the same time, different authors focused on different types of utopia. The interest in one or another direction in the utopia genre was also determined by the socio-cultural context, the ethos of each individual epoch. 

The first known utopia of antiquity, which largely predetermined the development of European Utopianism, was Plato's "State". The ancient Greek philosopher represented the ideal state as based on the idea of justice and the good. The division of the state into estates had to be carried out on the basis of the spiritual inclinations of each individual (the three principles of the human soul in Plato's theory correlated with the functions of the three estates). The principles of meritocracy are reflected in Plato's State (the social status of a person and his role in society should have fully corresponded to his talents and skills). Mumford notes that Plato, in his ideal state, which is, in fact, the first work of the utopia genre, focuses on the socio-political aspect: the optimal structure and organization of governance in the state should guarantee its well-being and prosperity, and the prosperity of the state should inevitably lead to the happiness of its citizens. ^[6] At the same timePlato describes the model of a totalitarian state, since the personal happiness of members of society is presented as absolutely coinciding with the interests of their native country, and eugenic, since the state is given full control over the choice of partners for childbirth and the upbringing of the younger generation. According to Plato, it is in the interests of the state to carry out artificial selection among people in order to ensure the production of the highest quality offspring. Plato's utopia becomes a dystopia when viewed from a humanistic perspective. 

Aristotle did not accept Plato's presuppositions about the ideal state and considered Plato's model of the state unrealizable in practice. The state, according to Aristotle, arises as a result of the natural growth of the family, and its main goal is to satisfy the needs and interests of people. Private property and the family, according to Aristotle, are natural phenomena originating from human nature. The idea of correlating social happiness with scientific and technological progress is absolutely alien to Plato's ideal state, ^[18] it manifests itself only in the European utopia of Modern times. Although Aristotle in one of his treatises notes that slavery and social inequality can be eradicated only when the spinning wheel begins to spin itself, and the broom itself takes revenge on the house, none of the ancient authors associate the happiness of mankind with scientific development and technical inventions. ^[14,15]

In the era ofIn the Middle Ages, social inequality and injustice were considered an expression of the natural order of things or a consequence of the imperfection of human nature. ^[9] During the Renaissance, the utopia genre began to develop rapidly, while the social utopia was considered by the authors in an inextricable relationship with the technological, architectural and urban aspects of the formation of the urban environment. ^[2] In the XVIII century, the utopians' attention was most focused on the legislative and political organization of society, and in the XIX century, the optimal economic structure was considered the key to social well-being. At the same time, many utopian authors relied on existing works of this genre, building their ideal model on the basis of or in refutation of existing ones. Thus, the pastoral novel "Arcadia" by the English Elizabethan poet F. Sidney (1554 — 1586) refers to the pastoral of the same name by the Italian poet and writer Jacopo Sannazzaro (1458-1530).

In the utopias of Bacon, Bergerac and other utopians of the XVII century.  social well-being is considered as a result of automation of labor and scientific discoveries. ^[7]  While in the works of Campanella and Mora the authors' interest is focused on the architectural appearance of the city, the works of the Utopians of the XVII and XVIII centuries are characterized by attention to the development of science and technology. ^[16] Bacon, in particular, tells about the special devices common among the Bensalemians that endow them with the ability to fly, he also describes a prototype of a modern engine, ultra-advanced optical devices that improve human vision, devices that multiply enhance human hearing.  Written in the form of a classic travel novel, "New Atlantis" is devoted more to the problems of the development of science. Solomon's House, described in detail in the novel, is the embodiment of an ideal academic institution. Touching upon the issues of family and mores prevailing in the society of the New Atlantis, the author clearly opposes them to the mores of contemporary Europeans, condemning the latter. ^[1]

An even greater condemnation of the moral image of European society is expressed in Jonathan Swift's tetralogy. Descriptions of the type and structure of architectural structures, urban development plans are given in these novels only in the general context of considering the socio-economic and political structure of utopian states. ^[10]

Bergerac also describes in detail the techniques and inventions found in utopian society: for example, his hero admires a mechanical book that independently reproduces its own content with a voice (a prototype of modern audiobooks).  These images and ideas largely anticipate the technological utopianism of the XIX and XX centuries. The treatise of S. Berington (1680-1755)  "The memoirs of S. Guadentio di Lucca from the report before the fathers of the Inquisition in Bologna, Italy, about the discovery of an unknown country, as ancient, inhabited and civilized as China, among the deserts of Africa" (1737) is close in its genre to a travel novel, as well as a treatise by the German theologian, alchemist and philosopher I. V. Andre "Description of the Christianopolitan Republic" (1619). The model of the structure of Christianopolis – the ideal Christian city-state described in this work - expresses the idea that the development of industry, the improvement of the quality of life of people is a direct consequence of theoretical scientific research leading to landmark discoveries. At the same time, there is no stable distribution of labor functions in the social structure of Christianopolis, depending on the social status of a member of society. In addition to special professions, citizens have certain public duties, which include physical labor: this can be public patrolling and city security, harvesting grain and wine, working on roads, on municipal construction sites and in factories. These duties should be performed by all citizens, regardless of their wealth and origin: aristocrats should not shy away from physical work, in which there is nothing shameful and shameful. This element of labor duties also distinguishes Andre's utopia from Plato's ideal city: there, physical labor is the lot of only those who do not have a developed mind or will and who are not capable of more. The Christianopolis model assumes zoning into industrial, commercial, residential and other quarters. Adjacent to the city was also an extensive agricultural zone containing recreational areas of gardens and parks. When planning the industrial quarters of Christianopolis, the Utopian of the XVII century anticipated the practices of modern development. The main principle implemented in the life of citizens of Christianopolis is a balance between intellectual work and physical labor. In this respect, Andre anticipates the ideal of a socialist utopia, which assumed an equilibrium combination of intellectual and physical labor in the lifestyle of citizens.

The XVIII century, in a certain sense of the word, became a turning point in the history of European utopianism: it was during this period that people begin to try to improve the life of society through changes in the political, economic and social structure. In the XIX century. Utopians see the main secret of social well-being in economic prosperity. The concept of "economic man", formulated by British utilitarians based on the concept of A. Smith (1723-1790), defines a person as a being driven solely by instincts for construction, profit and acquisition, having no other ultimate goal than to become the head of the production process.

This belief in science, in the power of the human mind, which is generally very characteristic of the European consciousness of Modern times, was transformed in the XIX century into dystopian images of industrial cities reflected in works of art. The image of Cocktown — an industrial city from the novel by Charles Dickens "Hard Times" - carries negative connotations and indicates the author's disappointment in the utilitarianism and rationalism of that era.^[5]

 The European utopia of Modern times reflects the iconic images and plots of the ancient and Renaissance utopia: the famous state of Plato, the utopias of T. More and T. Campanella, the model of an ideal Christian state, presented in the treatise "Description of the Christianopolitan Republic" by I.V. Andre (1586-1654).  The patterns observed in the evolution of the European utopia are directly interrelated with the socio-cultural appearance of the epoch and reflect the history of the development of European cities, the history of European culture. ^[20] Utopias of previous eras form historical prerequisites for modern ideas about the ideal social structure. Conceptual understanding of utopian treatises of Modern times allows us to identify significant patterns in the evolution of ideas about an ideal society and an ideal state. Generalization of this research experience opens up new perspectives in modern philosophical discourse.