Artistic synthesis of epic and dramatic in F. I. Chudakov's essay "Towards the Clouds"

Lapteva Natal'ya Andreevna Russian Russian Language and Literature post-graduate student of Blagoveshchensk State Pedagogical University; Senior lecturer of the Department of Russian Language and Literature of Blagoveshchensk State Pedagogical University. 675000, Russia, Amurskaya oblast', g. Blagoveshchensk, ul. Lenina, 104 rusoved12@gmail.com

Relying on the artistic resources of different literary genera, writers can use the synthesis of various techniques of depicting reality. Thus, prose works are sometimes endowed with special features that are characteristic of drama. "All the means of artistic representation, all the techniques and methods of organizing the work, on which the playwrights rely, are available simultaneously to the authors of epic works and are widely used by them. The epic form invariably absorbs those principles that the dramatic one is forced to limit itself to" ^{[14, p. 44]}. In this regard, the term "theatricality" was introduced into the scientific usage of literary criticism.

Analyzing drama as a kind of literature, V. E. Khalizev introduces the concept of theatricality, which is based on "psychology, not afraid of publicity, not limited to the sphere of intimate communication ("face to face"), but directly or indirectly directed to broad, group contacts" ^{[14, p. 66]}. The scientist distinguishes two types of theatricality: "self-disclosure" ^{[14, p. 66]} of a person and his "self-change" ^{[14, p. 66]}. The first is carried out through verbal and nonverbal signals (speech, facial expressions, gestures), the second – through the transformation of the hero, deliberate mystification and masquerade.

Modern researchers believe that elements of theatricalization can be identified in works of different kinds of literature. "The theatricality of the worldview is manifested not in the themes of specific works or even in a specific figurative structure, but in the fact that the behavior of the characters is structured according to the model of a certain spectacle" ^[7]. "In a literary work, the theatrical code is a system of regular connections between the structural elements of the expression plan that carry the relevant information and the elements of the content plan transmitted with their help, determined by a special type of internal organization of the text at the level of structure, plot-building, image system and conflict, focused on creating a model of theatrical (stage) representation" ^{[3, p. 165]}. Thus, theatricality is the intentional endowment of a work with elements that contribute to its visualization.

The synthesis of literary genera (in particular, epic and drama) was a way of updating the form of the work – a similar trend was especially popular in the mainstream of modernism. In this paper, we will refer to such integration by the term "theatricalization". "The dramatization of prose is a process of transferring the techniques and principles of drama into a non-dramatic text, integrating scenic and non-scenic forms within the prosaic space" ^{[2, p. 111]}. The elements of theatricalization used in a prose work solve the following tasks: erase the boundaries between the work and the out-of-text reality; eliminate the difference between the depicted and the image. "The life shown in the drama, as it were, speaks from its own face. The action here is captured with greater certainty than in epics, novellas, novels. Perceiving the images of drama, we get acquainted not with someone's messages about life facts, but as if closely with the facts themselves" ^{[14, p. 43]}. The focus on the main property of the drama – the likeness of life – allows writers to strengthen this beginning in epic works.

Fyodor Ivanovich Chudakov (1888-1918) – a talented satirist, "Amur Sasha Black" ^[11], writer, publicist, whose fate was connected with Blagoveshchensk. During his creative activity, being a great connoisseur and connoisseur of theatrical art, he repeatedly wrote reviews of local productions; created feuilletons dedicated to entrepreneurs and their low-grade "masterpieces". A.V. Urmanov speaks about the author's special interest in drama, noting the use of "small dramatic forms of satirical and humorous orientation: "Sleeping Handsome. Operetta in one act” (1909), “The Princess is ridiculed. Lyre-epic drama with fantastic transformations" (1909), “Reader and writer. A little tragedy" (1916), etc." ^{[10, p. 305]}.

The functioning of theatrical techniques in F. I. Chudakov's feuilletons is analyzed by researcher Liu Ying. Commenting extensively on the works devoted to international topics ("Scum of the day (Sparkling in the fresh air ...)" (1911), "Ballad of the near future" (1911), "Scum of the Day (By the Will of the throne enterprise ...)" (1912), Liu Ying concludes: "created using the principle and techniques of theatrical feuilletons they give the author the opportunity to embody the idea not abstractly, not purely rationalistically, but "spectacularly", vividly, figuratively, intelligibly – like a "live movie"" ^{[9, p. 100]}.

F. I. Chudakov's prose has a similar property, especially those works based on autobiographical material. The fate of the author was not easy: according to a denunciation, he was accused of revolutionary propaganda and sentenced under articles 128 and 129 of the Criminal Code to three years of Siberian exile in Chervyanka, a remote taiga village. All the turning points: the investigation chambers of the Chembar and Penza prisons, the stage, the Krasnoyarsk transfer, life in the taiga – were reflected in the works of F. I. Chudakov. The essay "Towards the Clouds" is based on the author's impressions that he received during the transfer from prison to the place of settlement. The work was published on 18 (31) December 1909 in the newspaper "Amur Region" signed by Fedor Ch.

Unfortunately, we have only the first, introductory part of the proposed cycle, in which the beginning is indicated. Most likely, the storyline of this series of essays, if it was implemented, was a description of the movement of exiled "politicians" along the stage to the place of settlement. This is eloquently evidenced by the headline complex, including the subtitle "Essays of forced travel to hell in the middle of nowhere."

Thus clarifying the genre of the work ("essays on travel"), the author depicts scenes from the life of prisoners. Hence the epithet "forced" – not voluntarily, forced – and the expressive naming of the topos – "to hell in the middle of nowhere" – it is unknown where; in wild, impassable places. The title sets a certain vector of movement – "towards the clouds", but the journey will not bring pleasure: tense expectations of the reader are formed through semantic associations. In a figurative sense, clouds are gathering over the heads of those who are waiting for any danger or threat. And also in the reader's mind there is an image of another exile who was previously sent into exile and had a premonition of a fatal outcome, comparing his fate with the movement of clouds: "Clouds of heaven, eternal wanderers! / Azure steppe, pearl chain / You are rushing, as if like me, exiles / From the sweet north to the south" ^{[8, p. 174]}.

"The title is the first sign of the text, giving the reader a whole set of ideas about the book. It is this that most of all forms the reader's pre-understanding of the text, becomes the first step towards its interpretation" ^{[4, p. 65]}. Thanks to the headline complex, the narrator's point of view is determined: he directly participates in the events described, gives an assessment of what is happening. F. I. Chudakov brings the narrative as close as possible to the dramatic format – the unfolding of the action here and now, so that the reader also becomes an accomplice of the "forced journey". Focusing on the visualization of events and combining it with the expression of the subjective evaluation of the narrator, the writer creates an unusual format of the so-called "first-person cinema". The reader is presented with a scenario, as it were, decomposed into frames, where the situation, the replicas of the characters, the necessary gestures are prescribed. But due to the fact that the work is still epic, this form "reproduces not only what is being told, but also the narrator. She artistically captures the manner of speaking and perceiving the world, and ultimately – the mindset and feelings of the narrator. The image of the narrator is revealed not in actions and not in direct outpourings of the soul, but in a kind of narrative monologue" ^{[14, p. 214]}. Thus, the work is filled with theatrical codes, but at the same time remains organized by the consciousness of the narrator, which allows not only to produce a "presence effect", but also to emphasize the author's intention.

In the composition of the work, it is conditionally possible to distinguish several episodes-"frames", which represent a series of movements and stops, general and close-ups. The first mise en scene is the most detailed. The narrative opens with a description of the setting – a decoration outlined in a few strokes: "Fine sharp rain. There is a fog over the city, a gray, dirty fog, from which the lungs are stuffy and the heart is sad" ^{[15, p. 43; our italics. – N.L.]}. The description of the state of nature does not contain predicate verbs, which, as it were, excludes the concept of time and the performance of actions in general. Evaluative epithets reinforce the impression of physical discomfort: damp, stuffy, uncomfortable – the journey is still forced. This state is reinforced by moral oppression – "sad at heart" – this is how the narrator feels, the same feeling is growing in the reader. The keyword "fog" repeated twice speaks both about the vague state of those sentenced to exile and about their foggy future. The color epithet "gray", concentrating the cloudy state of the weather, will later develop into a symbolic designation of the mental turmoil of a person who is unable to control his fate. "Nature is correlated with man and is designed to model human existence, human understanding of the world and determine the place of man in the world order" ^{[13, p. 286]}. The sound structure of the following phrase also makes a depressing impression: "Mud slaps and hoots under your feet, splashes in thin streams up and spreads over your robes..." ^{[15, p. 43]}. Alliteration based on the sound combinations [gr’], [br], [page], [rh] and the sound [x] creates the effect of presence: you can hear the slapping of many feet on the road, swollen with mud.

Then the focus shifts to the state of one of the prisoners. Including inappropriate direct speech in the narrative, F. I. Chudakov depicts the physical torments of the character: "Cats rub their legs painfully. The devil knows, they gave out some armadillos, right though an elephant, and there is no onuch, and the naked body itches and blushes from constant friction. You're about to rub it until it bleeds. Then it's bad" ^{[15, p. 43]}. Shoes are not at all suitable for long transitions: cats – "ordinary warm shoes made of felt or cloth in the form of short boots (mainly female)" ^{[12, p. 523]} – are not issued in size. Over this, despite the discomfort, the hero is ironic; he has enough mental strength to have an optimistic attitude even in such a situation: "some armadillos, right though an elephant." The absence of onuch ("footcloths, wide long strips of dense fabric, usually used to wrap the legs when wearing bast shoes or boots" ^{[12, p. 523]}) can lead to even greater discomfort: bloody calluses will appear, which there will be nothing to cover. "Human clothing is always significant. <...> It <...> localizes us in a certain national culture, in a certain era, solidifies with some, antagonizes with others" ^{[13, p. 183]}. Government-issued bad shoes, along with prison robes, indicate a special attitude towards "politicians": it is not customary to show sympathy to criminals. Those in whose hands the power is concentrated do everything possible to make the severity of the punishment felt in full even on the way to the place of exile.

Further action passes into external speech, new characters appear, the narrator's gaze covers what is happening, as if rising above it. It turns out that the main character's name is Fedor – an obvious reference to the autobiographical nature of what is happening. Also appears to be a "tall, thin esdek" ^{[15, p. 43]} Shlema Levin – "Chudakov's comrade in the Yenisei exile" ^{[12, p. 524]}. The hero with the same name appears in the essay from the life of the Siberian exile "Timokhina mare" (1910-1911). "Perhaps it is he who is brought out as the main character in the story "Moisha Ptashnik"" ^{[12, p. 524]} (1914). Also, the name of the Helmet can be found in the replica of the Tramp, the hero of the play "The Exiles" (1918) ^[15].

Vanya takes part in the conversation – a character about whom no details are stated – obviously, for a greater degree of typification of the depicted: a generalized image, without external and internal details, with the most common name.

And the completely unnamed participants of the scene are impersonal escorts, who, however, are in a dominant position. Their presence reveals a characteristic sound: "Bayonets clang: soldiers stumble" ^{[15, p. 43]}. It is noteworthy that the author pays attention primarily to this detail – the characters become a function: their role is reduced to ensuring order during movement. They are like puppeteers, in whose hands is the fate of the prisoners. It is the convoy that orders to stand or continue moving ("Go quiet! Look at the rod! – the senior guard shouts. – There is nowhere to hurry!" ^{[15, p. 43]}); allows or does not allow to smoke ("– Escort, can I smoke?" ^{[15, p. 43]}); knows how long the journey will last ("– Escort, is it still far? – A mile and a half..." ^{[15, p. 43]}). Involuntarily, an association is born: the prisoners and their escorts look like a flock and shepherds; in the subsequent narrative, this comparison is partially realized.

The image of details is interspersed with more general frames showing the place of events. "We are walking through the back streets. On purpose, so that there were fewer onlookers! The streets are empty. Only pigs and dogs roam. Not even the kids. Well! After all, they are used to it. Every week stages. Took a closer look" ^{[15, p. 43]}. The mention of onlookers and children – constant witnesses of something interesting on the streets - speaks of a certain scenic nature of what is happening; a negative technique is used – there are no spectators now (only pigs and dogs), they are so fed up with the spectacle that they no longer meet the stages either out of curiosity or out of pity. They took a closer look at human suffering, got used to abuse, treat what is happening as an ordinary thing.

Movement and stops also alternate in the narrative, this is due to a change in the focus of attention: movement is an external general plan, pause is an appeal to the main character.

The image of the scene is not detailed, it is placed in the inner speech of the hero, whose consciousness, as it were, snatches out elements of reality that are significant here and now. "Those thoughts and aspirations that stand out against the general background of a person's inner life as if in close-up and completely fill the consciousness, even for a short time, are "dramatic" ^{[14, p. 111]}. The hero fixes attention on appearance, clothes unsuitable for a long "forced journey". Loose cats, a soaked robe, drops of rain or sweat running down the face – the look of an exhausted, tired person; and it's still a very long way to go – "a mile and a half." The removed shoes become a relative salvation: "barefoot is better" – and the thought that it would be necessary to bend the trousers even more. Strict convoy, harsh conditions of the Siberian climate – nothing affects the resilience of the main character, who has not lost his sense of humor. This is evidenced by his replicas-reactions (to go far – "Wow..."; loose cats will come in handy – "Well, of course") and an ironic remark about the dirt that "so gently" crawls between the toes of bare feet.

The next "frame" is a polylogue of heroes during a forced stop: "the cart with our knots got stuck in the mud" ^{[15, p. 44]}. At first it seems that these are logical complaints about life in the current situation, because all the previous narration seemed to be preparing for the voicing of such thoughts. "The reactions of human consciousness to the immediate environment, to the situation of the moment, are most fruitful for putting into dramatic form" ^{[14, p. 113]}.

The replicas of different heroes seem to be linked into a single complete statement, behind which the general mood of the "politicians" is hidden. Inconveniences on the way, increasing physical discomfort – it's still easier to bear than incarceration in prison. Mud and rain are much more pleasant than the walls of the cell, since it is still "free air", and life, though not free, is ahead.

And in order to defuse the tense situation, probably connected with memories of prison or thoughts about future changes in the situation, the writer puts the most disgruntled hero – "frowning pulling" his remark to Levin's Helmet – in a comic situation:

The rain is increasing…

Levin touches the helmet with his foot, falls…

Gets up, hands in the dirt, face in the dirt…

Rubs on the robe… Quite Papuan... ^{[15, p. 44]}

The design of the episode can be correlated with the composition of the mise–en–scene: the general background is the increasing rain; the main action is the fall of the hero; close–up - dirty hands, face, savior robe; and as if the narrator's off-screen comment: "quite Papuan". The phrasing is also noteworthy: each new sentence is written separately and is a laconic microtheme, ending with an ellipsis; this creates the effect of holding a pause necessary for the reader to finish drawing the details of what is happening. The author only punctuates the event by selecting verbs naming a specific action: "added", "touches", "falls", "rubs". There are no members of the sentence who could extend the statement by definition or indicate a course of action. A peculiar folding of the description is characteristic of the dramatic kind of literature: devoid of many details, it also acquires a subtext meaning. "A detail, being a kind of point, tends to expand into a circle. Sometimes it has little noticeable <...>, and at times a very strong desire to close with the main idea of the thing: characters, conflicts, destinies" ^{[1, p. 303]}.

In many prose works by F. I. Chudakov, the convict's robe grows from a material detail into a symbol: issued by the state, it becomes an assistant object for "politicians" in many cases (for example, it saves the pages of a handwritten magazine during a search ^[6] or helps a hero left without a horse get out of the taiga ^[5]). The repeatedly mentioned dirt is also perceived as a significant detail; an involuntary parallel arises again: the prisoners walking along the stage are a herd of animals wandering in any weather at the request of the drivers.

And as if wanting to change the tone once again, the author draws a close-up of the panorama opening before the "politicians": the wide expanse of the Yenisei is visible around the bend, the banks are drowning in fog. It is no coincidence that the turn that always accompanies the motif of the road in a work of art is followed by changes in the fate of the characters. The majestic picture of the Siberian river causes universal admiration, expressed by the verbs "ahay" and "admire". It is amplified by the repetition of "wide, wide" – as far as the eye can see, the surface of the river is spread out, where there are no obstacles and barriers. The coloristic verb is also contrasting – "the Yenisei is turning blue"; a fresh color against a gray background makes the characters sigh with surprise. It attracts exhausted people, gives hope for a speedy coolness and cleanliness. But on the other hand, the future still remains unclear: "the coast is not visible - it is drowning in fog" ^{[15, p. 44]}. However, this does not frighten, on the contrary, the prisoners add a step: "Aha, here is the steamer. And next to the barge ... a large, black ... the deck is covered with canvas..." ^{[15, p. 44]}.

In the next mise en scene, "spectators" appear, which allows you to literally realize the elements of theatricalization: these are strolling local people and undercover spies among them. It is obvious that ladies under umbrellas making a promenade along the embankment are quite understandable entertainment of the provincial city. But the presence of spies among the gawkers suggests that special criminals – "politicians" – are dangerous to the state authorities, they need special supervision. Again, the episode's finale is noteworthy – it is an appeal to the feelings of the narrator, which, however, may be characteristic of other characters: thoughts of escape, and they especially make the heart tremble.

The denouement is an episode of the landing of exiles, the first part of the "forced journey" on this reaches the goal. But, as it turns out, "politicians" are brought not on a steamer, but on a large black barge, which turns out to be a cattle truck: "sheep are transported to Yeniseisk on it" ^{[15, p. 44]}. The description of the loading once again draws people like a herd being driven: "We are winding up the ladder like a snake. How many of us, it turns out..." ^{[15, p. 44]}

However, the most striking thing is something else. The barge is completely unsuitable for transporting people; first of all, this is evidenced by the terrible smell. "Their more or less common meanings are [smells. – N.L.] are obtained, as a rule, at the expense of the carrier or source of the smell and are differentiated on the value and semantic axes in accordance with the differentiation of sources" ^{[13, p. 336]}. The source becomes clear immediately – "this is a cattle truck" ^{[15, p. 44]}, "and by our arrival, even the deck was not washed on it. They put bunks in the middle, and that's it" ^{[15, p. 44]}. The height of cynicism is such an attitude towards people who are forced to endure not only hardships, but also bullying for their political beliefs. This demonstrates the attitude of the authorities towards those who dared to be in opposition: such "criminals" have no more rights than cattle.

However, a person gets used to everything, and staying on a barge gradually turns into a state-owned "rest": you can wash your feet by taking warm yellow water from the Yenisei; you can smoke openly; sit on a bunk so that your overworked and chafed feet finally rest. And such simple everyday trifles make the heroes cheer up: "I like the new situation terribly ... no bars, no locks ... As if we travel by our own will ^{[15, p. 45]}.

In the last phrase lies the whole drama of the situation: the prisoners have no will of their own. Water from the river is collected under the frowning eyes of the convoy; they take their places on the bunks under the shout of the convoy; verification is underway, and all further "travel" will take place under the close supervision of the convoy. Usually, in a difficult and long journey, often forced, a Russian person is saved by a song (for example, yamshchitskaya or burlatskaya). But the prisoners are not allowed even this consolation: "You can't," the sentry drops. – When we leave, you will get drunk" ^{[15, p. 45]}.

The final mise en scene is a general plan, equipped with sound and color details. The prisoners find the long–awaited peace: they can smoke; exchange impressions of the past day, providing them with funny or ironic remarks, and feel like people again. But this is only an external well-being, temporary. As yet unclear premonitions torment everyone: what will be ahead, how will a new life go in a strange land among strangers? Hence the use of the key words of the essay when describing the situation: "twilight" (replaced by "fog"), "gray" (entailing "strange"), which are semantically combined with the meanings "unknown", "indistinguishability", "danger". This is probably how the general state can be characterized, but the feelings of the narrator himself are different: "Well, sleep so sleep!" The sentence is exclamatory in emotional coloring, unlike most others in the text ending with an ellipsis. The remark seems to sum up not only the day, but also the life stage as a whole. The hero seems to be reconciling with his new position (this was felt by his other remarks), he is full of optimism and believes that fate will still be favorable: he is not alone in this difficult path, but with like-minded people.

Thus, F. I. Chudakov in the essay does not so much depict an external event as makes an attempt to explore the inner experiences of a person who is placed in inhuman conditions and deprived of all participation. The writer shows what is happening through the eyes of one of the participants, which required the introduction of elements of theatricalization into the narrative. Among them are monologues and dialogues in which replicas-reactions are used; a special detailing of the images of "politicians" and a negative reception in relation to the impersonal mass of escorts; an image of the inner state of the characters through external descriptions of the landscape; inappropriate direct speech; alternating scenes contrasting in tone.

For many years, information about the lives of political prisoners has been erased from the memory of the people, so it is so important for the writer to restore not only the path, but also the inner world of these people, people with an unenviable fate, but strong convictions and fortitude. And thanks to the author's synthesis of the dramatic and epic in one work, this goal is achieved as successfully as possible.