Trade and economic cooperation between the USSR and Sudan in 1960 -1980.

Mohamed Abdalla Abdelrahim Elnur ORCID: 0000-0003-3841-7269 Postgraduate student, Department of Russian History, Peoples' Friendship University of Russia 117198, Russia, Moscow, Miklukho-Maklaya str., 10, room 2 abdo.yasmina2017@gmail.com

 Introduction

In the last three decades after the collapse of the USSR, Russia's presence in Africa has significantly decreased.

At the same time, "the emerging new dynamics of Russian-African relations is primarily related to the development of partnership in those areas and in those areas where Russia has competitive potential, production capacity, high competencies and experience" (including "development of natural resources, nuclear and hydropower, military-technical cooperation", personnel training, etc.) ^{[1, p. 203]}.Such a statement was also true for the initial stage of the formation of economic cooperation between the USSR and African countries after they gained independence. In this regard, as researcher Abi Adetokundo writes, "one can mention the Ansuan dam in Egypt, hydroelectric power plants in Guinea, Zambia, Mali and Madagascar, the Ajaokuta steel mills in Nigeria and other projects in various parts of Africa" ^{[2, p. 477]}.

The purpose of this work is to consider the main directions of Soviet-Sudanese economic cooperation at the stage of formation and development of political ties between the two countries, starting from the establishment of Soviet-Sudanese diplomatic relations in 1956 and up to the mid-1980s, when relations were already interrupted.

The main source on the history of economic cooperation between the two countries during the period under review are legislative, clerical documents, as well as statistical materials contained in multi-volume thematic collections of documents prepared by the Institute of Africa of the Russian Academy of Sciences ^[3].Also, archival materials extracted by the author in the funds of the reference on Sudan (F.130) and the USSR Embassy in Sudan (F.564) of the Archive of Foreign Policy of the Russian Federation contain valuable information about the first diplomatic contacts of the two countries, information about the economic and political situation in Sudan in the early postcolonial period, the main directions of bilateral scientific and technical cooperation.

Relations between the USSR and African countries began to be built already in the first years of their independence. The Soviet Union recognized the independence of the Democratic Republic of the Sudan (DRS) immediately after its proclamation on January 1, 1956. On January 5, diplomatic relations were established between the countries, which were stable until the early 1970s. The establishment of diplomatic relations and the exchange of diplomatic representatives between Sudan and the socialist States were of great importance for increasing the international prestige of this African country and strengthening its internal situation in the conditions of the economic blockade of the West. Already in May 1956, a delegation of Sudan headed by the Minister of Trade and Industry arrived in the USSR.

        August 19 , 1957 The Charge d'affaires of the USSR in Sudan visited the Prime Minister and Interim Acting Minister of Foreign Affairs of Sudan Abdullah Khalil, outlined to him the position of the Soviet Union on the issue of assisting Sudan in its economic development and left him a memo stating that Soviet organizations, wishing to promote the economic development of Sudan, are ready to develop trade relations with it on mutually beneficial commercial terms, without any political, military or other requirements that would infringe on the State sovereignty of the Sudan and its national dignity ^{[4, l. 55-56]}.

       On September 14, 1958, a parliamentary delegation of the Republic of Sudan visited the USSR. During their visit, the Sudanese parliamentary delegation visited Moscow, Leningrad, Tashkent, Stalingrad, got acquainted with the activities of the supreme legislative authorities of the USSR and the Union republics, as well as local authorities. At the same time, the delegation was given the opportunity to get acquainted with the economic, cultural and social aspects of the life of the Soviet people. According to the head of the delegation M.S. Shingeti, the arrival of the parliamentary delegation of the Republic of Sudan contributed to the development of friendly relations between the two countries and, as he believed, this should also be facilitated by the arrival of a delegation of Soviet specialists to Sudan, designed to deepen the development of mutually beneficial economic relations between the two countries ^{[5, L. 6-14]}.

        The Soviet-Sudanese negotiations on economic and technical cooperation led to the conclusion of the first trade agreement of March 16, 1959, thanks to which the Sudan received a solid market for the main types of national products, such as serfs, gum arabic, groundnut and sesame. In exchange, the Soviet Union guaranteed supplies to Sudan of machinery and equipment vital for the country, timber, rolled metal, textiles, cement and other goods ^{[6, p. 80]}.

The greatest impetus in the development of bilateral ties was given in November 1961, when Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee L. I. Brezhnev arrived in the country on an official visit. For the Sudanese people, the visit was historic, since Brezhnev visited the Sudanese capital at the height of the Cold War, at the peak of the USSR's technical achievements, including in space exploration.

        The USSR assumed obligations to carry out design and survey work, to provide Sudan with construction materials, equipment, assistance in training personnel to work at Sudanese enterprises.

Earlier, in July 1961, a Sudanese delegation headed by Chairman of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces and Prime Minister Ibrahim Abboud arrived in the USSR. At the end of the visit, the published joint communique noted that "as a result of the negotiations, the foundations for cooperation in the field of economy and cultural exchange were prepared in the interests of both countries." ^{[7, pp. 85-93]}.

In response to the wish of the Sudanese side, the Soviet Government, driven by the desire to help the Government and the people of the republic in efforts aimed at developing the national economy, confirmed its readiness to provide economic and technical assistance to the Sudan in the construction of a number of industrial enterprises and the training of skilled workers and technicians ^{[7, pp. 75-76]}.

During his visit to Moscow, the Chairman of the Revolutionary Council and the Prime Minister of the DRS spoke about the goals and objectives of the Sudanese revolution, about socio-economic transformations in the country based on socialist principles. During the negotiations, it was revealed that the views of the USSR and Sudan coincide on many international issues, including the struggle for peace, against colonialism, racism, and apartheid, which was reflected in the joint Soviet-Sudanese communique ^{[8, p. 278]}.

       As a result of the visit, an agreement on mutual understanding and long-term strategic agreements were signed in the field of healthcare, education and training of Sudanese technical and military personnel at Soviet universities and scientific institutes.

          Sudan received loans for the construction of enterprises, medical institutions, exploration of mineral resources, development of agriculture ^[8].

          In 1963, in Sudan, Soviet specialists surveyed the territory of the White Nile, helped the development of fishing, the construction of a fish cannery.

        Traditional Sudanese goods that were exported were cotton, gum arabic, peanuts, sesame, leather, etc. Machinery and equipment were purchased in the USSR, including for the aviation and automotive sectors of the economy.  Connections in the field of maritime and aviation transport have been established thanks to the opening of sea (between Odessa and Port Sudan) and aviation (between Moscow and Khartoum) communications ^{[9, pp. 62-65]}.

      In 1969, a bilateral agreement was signed in the field of geological and geophysical study of the Red Sea Mountains with the participation of Soviet specialists and on the supply of equipment. In total, 20 specialists from the USSR arrived in the country, who were engaged in various jobs in the field of geological exploration, irrigation, in the agricultural sector, as well as as consultants in ministries and departments of Sudan. On the basis of the agreement of 1971, the trade representation of the USSR in Sudan was opened. There was a constant exchange of delegations at the highest level. The chairman of the Revolutionary Council and the Prime Minister of the DRS, Jafar Mohammed, also visited Moscow Nimeiri ^{[10, p. 381]}.

On November 21, 1969, an Agreement on economic and technical cooperation between the USSR and Sudan was signed, on the basis of which the DRS was granted a loan in the amount of 5 million rubles (at the rate of 2.5% per annum), allocated to pay for materials and equipment from the USSR in world market prices. Funds were also allocated to pay for the work of Soviet specialists in the DRS ^{[11, p. 145]}. 

The Soviet side donated drawings, diagrams of technological processes and other necessary documentation to Sudan. The Sudanese side was obliged to repay part of the loan in twelve equal annual installments. The amounts received from the payments of the Sudanese side and the interest on the loan were to be used by Soviet organizations for the purchase of Sudanese goods.

 It should be noted that within the framework of the concluded agreements on economic and technical cooperation between the countries, the issue of military-technical assistance to Sudan was also considered. ^{[12, p. 415]}.

The USSR supplied Sudan with "T-54 tanks, anti-aircraft guns (towed ZU-2 and self-propelled ZSU-57-2, wheeled BTR-152 and tracked BTR-50PK), small arms (AKM submachine guns, PM pistols, machine guns, hand-held anti-tank grenade launchers, artillery guns - 76 mm ZIS-Z guns, 122-mm M-30 howitzers, etc., 82-mm and 120-mm mortars), ammunition for the supplied weapons." Of great importance were the purchases of aircraft in the USSR (MiG-17 fighters, An-12 military transport aircraft, Mi-8 helicopters). The subject of import was also "automatic control systems for anti-aircraft missile systems with radio-controlled missiles, multi-purpose vehicles (GAZ-69, GAZ-66, UAZ-169, ZiL-157)" ^[13] various military-technical equipment. "The armament of the Sudanese army at that time consisted of almost 95% of Soviet military equipment," which was serviced by military specialists.

Schools for the training of military personnel for the Sudanese army, military training centers, rifle and artillery ranges, a tank airfield, directorships equipped with means to create a target situation and communications equipment, stationary air defense system positions in the Port Sudan area were built in order to protect Sudan from an air attack from the Red Sea of the northern and eastern directions" ^[13].

However, in July 1971, due to an unsuccessful military coup attempt involving the Sudanese Communist Party, the DRS unilaterally terminated diplomatic relations with the USSR. As a result, for many years, up to the mid-1980s, we can talk about the negative dynamics of relations, although the official authorities tried in every possible way to hide this in their official statements. Thus, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Sudan M. Khaled in an interview with the newspaper "Al-Ayyam" in January 1975 said: "Sudan has good relations with the Soviet Union. They testify to the mutual respect of the two countries, and we strive to deepen them in the interests of the Sudanese and Soviet peoples" ^{[14, p. 165]}.

Normalization of Soviet-Sudanese relations was outlined only by the mid-1980s. In 1986, Prime Minister of Sudan Sadiq Mahdi paid an official visit to the USSR. Subsequently, a number of agreements were signed, in particular, in 1987 - the protocol on mutual exchanges of goods, in 1991 - the protocol on cultural cooperation ^[15].

ConclusionThus, the history of the formation and development of Soviet-Sudanese economic relations includes several stages.

The period of the 1960s - early 1970s was characterized by the activation of economic and military-technical ties, which contributed to the process of diversification of the country's industrial production, the restructuring of its monocultural economy.

The facilities created with the participation of Soviet specialists were extremely important for the development and strengthening of the state sector of the country's economy. After the rupture of diplomatic relations, the normalization of bilateral ties occurred only during the so-called "third Sudanese democracy", when General Omar al-Bashir came to power. The study of the historical experience of relations between the two countries is important for the development of modern Russian-Sudanese relations in the field of economics, science and military technologies.