Creation of Circassian written language in Russia and Turkey in the context of nation-building (XIX – early XX century)

Tsibenko Veronika PhD in History Director, Centre for Interdisciplinary Studies in the Humanities of Southern Federal University 105/42 Bolshaya Sadovaya Str., Rostov-on-Don, 344006, Russia tsibenkovv@sfedu.ru

Pogulyaeva Elena Junior Scientific Associate, Centre for Interdisciplinary Studies in the Humanities of Southern Federal University 105/42 Bolshaya Sadovaya Str., Rostov-on-Don, 344006, Russia epogulyaeva@sfedu.ru

Today it seems indisputable that the emergence of natural languages took place at the dawn of human history. People, as a rule, learn their native language from childhood and use it in many areas of their lives. Language is a necessary communication tool, and its main function is communicative.

Nevertheless, the national and international languages known to us (for example, English, French, German, etc.) appeared much later than natural languages as such, and the reason for this is not only the historical internal development of these languages, but also extra-linguistic factors that the founder of structuralism in linguistic science F. de Saussure called it "external linguistics". To these factors F. de Saussure counted, in particular, political and geographical, including territorial changes of states and the fragmentation of languages into dialects ^{[1, p. 40-43]}. At the same time, the boundaries between dialects have a conventional nature and are always conditional precisely because they are closely related to external processes.

British scientist Michael Billig has put forward a theory according to which the modern concepts of "language" and "dialect" originated in the same era as the concepts of nations and nation-states. Billig writes that in the Middle Ages, people did not have a clear idea that they spoke a certain language, since there was no literary norm – some adverbs smoothly flowed into others within a single state and between states. Literary languages began to be established as emerging States, which were to become national, sought to use the language factor to construct nations. In accordance with the ideology of nationalism, which M. Billig considers to be the driving force behind the functioning of these concepts, only those nations that speak their own languages have the right to create their own states. As a result, in the era of nationalism, the concept of dialect appeared, which "justified" the absence of independent states for those groups that did not have developed national languages ^[2].

In the light of M. Billig's theory, it is interesting to consider the linguistic processes of those groups that, having no national states, develop their own national projects. This will allow us to study in more detail the relationship of the modern language with nation-building. Of the many possible options for conducting the study, we chose the Circassian case as promising for our topic in several respects. Firstly, the Circassians are currently experiencing an active phase of nation-building. Secondly, they live in their historical homeland (the Russian North Caucasus) and in the diaspora (mainly in Turkey), which makes this material more interesting. Thirdly, they have a whole complex of competing national projects: all-Caucasian, all-Adyghe, Adygo-Abkhazian, Kabardian, Adyghe and several other less common versions, which makes it possible to more clearly trace the dependence of linguistic processes on national ones. In this article, we will limit ourselves to considering only one aspect of a broad linguistic problem – the creation of writing.

We will begin by mentioning that the concept of the Circassian language, accepted in Soviet and Russian science, is radically different from the understanding of the native language in the Circassian diaspora. Prior to the beginning of the process of annexation of the Caucasus to the Russian Empire, no attempts were made to scientifically describe the languages that existed here, which did not fall into the field of view of professional linguists. Local languages have not formed their own written language, preserving the cultural heritage in oral form. Arabic was mainly used for written communication, although there are isolated examples of writing letters in local dialects using Arabic letters. In particular, the first recorded case refers to the second half of the XVIII century. ^{[3, s. 181-182]}.

The first variants of the Adyghe alphabets began to appear in the Caucasus in the XIX century, and most of the researchers who created them represented the Russian intelligentsia – linguists, ethnographers and military men with noble origins and appropriate education (I. Gracilevsky, L. Lyulye, P. Uslar, L. Lopatinsky). A special category included Caucasians with Russian education and/or in the Russian service, since the need for ethnographic and linguistic descriptions of the Caucasus was closely related to the integration of this region into the Russian Empire. Among them , Sh should be singled out . Nogmova, Sultan Khan-Giray, U. Bersei, K. Atazhukin, P. Tambieva, H. Anchoka, B. Huranova, T. Sheretlukova.

Before the annexation of the Caucasus to Russia, there was only one attempt to create a written language for Circassians, undertaken by Notauk Sheretlukov, who, being a Shapsug nobleman and mullah, had ties with the Ottoman Empire and made the Hajj to Mecca several times ^{[4, 5]}. Shora Nogmov, who was engaged in philological, historical and ethnographic studies of the Adygs and compiled several variants written language ^{[6, 7]}, came from a family of Kabardian Uzden. He was in the service of the Russian government, participated in many military expeditions, and was described as a man who performed his duties perfectly ^[8].

Another Circassian who served Russia faithfully, wrote the historical and ethnographic work "Notes on Circassia" and compiled his own alphabet ^{[6, p. 95]}, was Sultan Khan-Giray, the son of a feudal owner who had great influence and voluntarily accepted Russian citizenship. It should be noted that Sultan Khan-Giray served in the "life Guards of the Caucasian-Mountain half-squadron of His Majesty's convoy". It was a squadron of mountaineers who provided the personal protection of the tsar in St. Petersburg ^{[6, pp. 3-41]}. There were students of I.V. Grazilevsky, a Russian orientalist who compiled the alphabet of the Circassian language in Cyrillic. Subsequently, the members of the guard corresponded with each other using this alphabet ^[9]. Sh. Nogmov was also sent there, but he did not have time to take up his duties, as he died some time after arriving in St. Petersburg ^{[8, p. 10]}.

The famous Adyghe educator Umar Bersei was captured at an early age and sold to Egypt, where he learned Arabic and Ottoman languages ^[10]. Then he received his education in France ^{[11, pp. 89-90]}, after which in 1843 he served as an interpreter of Asian languages in the Russian army in the troops of the Caucasian line. In the 1850s and 60s, Bersei "under the influence of advanced Russian pedagogical thought" taught the Adyghe language at the Stavropol gymnasium ^{[12, p. 376]}.

Many of the researchers we have listed have identified several adverbs of the Adyghe language. Thus, L. Lyulye, who during his service in the Caucasus independently studied the languages that existed there, reports that there are Kabardian, Besleneyev and general Circassian dialects of the "Adiga" language ^{[13, pp. III-XI]}. A similar classification is given by L. Lopatinsky, distinguishing the Lower Adyghe (Kyakh - U. Bersei called it "kgyakhabze" ^{[14, p. 22]}), Middle Adyghe, or Besleneevo, and Upper Adyghe, or Kabardian dialects. At the same time, he informs that he considers the Kabardian dialect a language, since it is isolated from other dialects, and creates a dictionary for this language ^{[15, pp. I-II]}. Another person who described the Kabardian (Kabardino-Circassian) language was K. Atazhukin, who compiled the Kabardian alphabet ^[16]. Sh. Nogmov also distinguishes Kabardian and Besleneyev dialects, but does not write about some other dialect ^{[17, p. 38]}. Sultan Khan-Giray, in turn, reports on the common dialect of Kabardians and Beslineans, contrasting it as purer in relation to the dialect of the "grassroots" Circassians, i.e. all other tribes ^{[6, p. 95]}.

Anyway, everyone who attempted to create writing for the Adygs before the beginning of the XX century, created the concept of what the Adyghe language is and what adverbs it has, since a scientific description always requires conceptualization of the concept. At the same time, they either constructed a single Adyghe language, or studied the Kabardian (Kabardino-Circassian) language. Nevertheless, they pointed out that the Adyghe language and its dialects have different shades and properties in each tribe ^{[6, 13]}. Even P. Uslar, who, unlike others, does not distinguish any adverbs, describing the Circassian language, gives examples of sounds and words from different villages, implying that there are differences between the "languages" of villages ^{[18, pp. 61-74]}.

Variants of the Circassian script were created not only in the Caucasus, but also in the Ottoman Empire, where the Caucasian diaspora traditionally lived, which increased significantly with the annexation of the Caucasus to Russia. Ottoman attempts to create Circassian writing by influential Circassians integrated into the highest circles of the Ottoman Empire are observed somewhat later than in Russia. Circassian activist Fakhri Khuvazh, who currently lives in Turkey, reports that work on the alphabet and education in his native language was actively carried out in the era of Abdul Hamid II, although this period was marked by the despotic rule of the sultan. Then it was done by those close to the court or those who had a position in the bureaucratic system ^{[19, s. 6]}. Thus, in 1897, the Circassian alphabet in Javid Pasha Arabic was published by lithographic method ^{[20, s. 91, 165]} (June 30, 1906 Javid Pasha submitted a request for the official registration of his alphabet to the Ministry of Education, which was immediately granted ^{[21, s. 7]}), and in 1899 the Circassian newspaper "Ittihad" reported on the development of four types of Caucasian alphabets - Adyghe, Abkhaz—Abaza, Ubykh and Ossetian ^{[22, p. 58]}.

It should be noted that only Caucasians who did not have a specialized education took part in this, which is explained by the underdevelopment of linguistic science in the Ottoman Empire at that time and the general lack of interest among the Ottomans in local languages and dialects, characteristic of the educational project in the Russian Empire. The possibility of systematic work on the alphabet in the Ottoman Empire appeared after the Young Turk Revolution of 1908. Less than a month after it, the first organization of Caucasians in Turkey, operating on a legal basis, was established in Constantinople — the Circassian Society of Unity and Mutual Assistance (Circassian Ittihat ve Teavyun Jamiyeti), officially registered in November 1908. Due to the fact that in Turkey, the ethnonym "Circassian" in a broad sense means not only the Adygs, but also all people from the Caucasus who profess Islam, the founders of this society included representatives of different ethnic groups. They were closely associated with the Young Turk movement, the basis of which was the military elite. The society set education and the economy as its priorities, which corresponded to the agenda of the Young Turks ^[23].

One of the main goals of the Circassian Society of Unity and Mutual Assistance was to carry out activities in the cultural and educational sphere: it was planned to open a network of schools for Circassians, create a library in Constantinople, publish its own newspaper and textbooks. In one of the appeals published by the Society, it was said about the need to spread literacy and the written Circassian language ^{[23, p. 40-41]}.

In 1909 The Society has published a small dictionary of the Circassian language on a Latin basis. Batyray Yedich writes that it could be used as a "national alphabet" ^{[20, S. 166]}. Later, in April 1911, the Society began publishing the newspaper "Gouase" (Circa. "bulletin", "landmark"). The role of the Circassian language as part of the historical heritage was updated on the pages of this newspaper. It was stated that the preservation of the language is an expression of respect for the ancestors who gave their lives for their homeland, religion and honor ^{[24, p. 3]}. It should be noted that the newspaper "Gyuase", according to the Turkish researcher Elmas Zeynep Arslan, served as an instrument of national mobilization of Circassians ^{[23, p. 56, 161-162]}. At the same time, it was published exclusively for those who had a high education and, as Vladimir Hamed-Troyansky points out, belonged to the upper strata of society. This was the second generation of Circassians (after mass migration at the end of the Caucasian War in 1864), which was urbanized and had a national consciousness ^{[25, p. 479]}.

A short time after the publication of the newspaper "Gazette" (distributed not only in the territory of modern Turkey, but also in Syria, Jordan and the Caucasus) it began to include texts in the Circassian (Kabardian) language. Differences in the conditions for the implementation of Circassian nation-building in Russia and Turkey, related to geographical and socio-political factors, led to the existence of projects in Turkey involving the use of the same alphabets for the Adyghe "dialects" (osm. shiva) and the Abkhaz language ^{[26, s. 4]}. In addition, the former Minister of Waqfs and retired diplomat Shamsaddin Pasha compiled an alphabet intended for all North Caucasian "tribes" (osm. kabail) ^{[27, s. 3]}. Moreover, Fakhri Khuvazh reports that the author proposed using this alphabet for all existing languages, if such a need arises ^{[19, s. 7]}.

The period of the late XIX – early XX centuries was marked by the growth of social and educational activities in the Circassian environment and on the territory of the Russian Empire. A "Society for the dissemination of education among Kabardians and Mountaineers of the Nalchik district" appeared in the Caucasus, the purpose of which was education, the formation of national identity and the development of national culture ^[28]. This society included B. Khuranov ^{[11, p. 272]}, who created a variant of the Latinized alphabet of the Kabardian language (which began the systematic teaching of this language in schools in the Soviet era), published in 1923 ^{[29, p. 190-191]}.

In the process of creating Circassian writing, researchers and public figures used different bases — Arabic, Cyrillic and Latin. In the Russian Empire, the Cyrillic alphabet often served as the foundation for obvious reasons, and this corresponded to the goals of creating the Adyghe alphabet – to spread literacy among Circassians in both Adyghe and Russian and integrate them into the Russian environment. The Cyrillic alphabet was taken as a basis by I. Gracilevsky, Sultan Khan-Giray, L. Lyulye, P. K. Uslar, K. Atazhukin, L. G. Lopatinsky, P. Tambiev, T. Sheretlokov ^{[29, 30]}.

The Arabic basis was used both in Russia and in Turkey due to the religious factor, since most of the Circassians profess Islam. For example, N. Sheretlukov tried to translate Arabic religious literature into the Adyghe language at the beginning of the XIX century, for which he began to compile an Adyghe primer, but this was prevented by the local Muslim clergy ^[5]. Sh. Nogmov was also engaged in translations from Arabic of "moral books for reading" ^[31] (according to Khan Giray, he even translated the "Arabic Catechism" into Circassian ^{[6, p. 95]}) - his writing variants were both in Arabic and Cyrillic ^[32].

Arabic was the most common in the Ottoman Empire, as there were Ottoman, Arabic and Persian languages, which were used in the spheres of public administration, religion and culture. In this regard, it is not surprising that the Circassian Society of Unity and Mutual Assistance printed its charter and declarations on the basis of this writing. The alphabet of Javid Pasha, who served as the director of this institution, was used in the school opened by the society ^[23].

However, during the existence of the Society in Turkey, there were serious socio-political changes associated with the Young Turk revolution and its consequences. There was no consensus among Circassians about which alphabet should be used for the written Circassian language – Arabic or Latin. In 1908, the organization introduced the Latin alphabet for the Abkhaz and Adyghe languages along with Arabic.

The issue of choosing the basis for the alphabet was dealt with by the linguistic commission under the leadership of Yusuf Izzet, who published the results of its activities in the newspaper "Gazette". In 1910, the commission held a competition for the best Circassian alphabet ^{[33, s. 5]}. Subsequently, other alphabet projects were presented in the newspaper. There were also opinions expressed regarding the advantages and disadvantages of using specific alphabets. Thus, supporters of the Latin alphabet believed that this alphabet was not only convenient for studying and printing, but would also contribute to the assimilation of European languages and familiarization with the "achievements of the progress of Western nations" (see Milel-and garbiyenin terriakiyats) ^{[33, s. 5]}. Circassians, who advocated Arabic, in turn, they linked their position with arguments in favor of religion and noted the absence of cases of the transition of "Muslim nations" to the Latin alphabet ^{[26, s. 4]}. In their opinion, Circassians are an eastern nation, and communication with Turks, Tatars and Arabs is important for them. They stated that it was the development of the national language (osm. lisan-and milliye), and not the Latin alphabet, that would contribute to progress ^{[33, s. 5]}. European languages, in turn, are needed only by small groups of intellectuals.

As a result of these discussions, the commission of Yusuf Izzet informally left both alphabets in order to come to a consensus on the best option in the future ^{[26, 33]}. In 1912, another Latin-based alphabet appeared, proposed by Ali Pychy Haluk Bey ^[34].

It should be added that the Circassians of the Ottoman Empire were also familiar with the Cyrillic alphabet variants – the Adyghe alphabet, compiled in 1861 by Umar Bersei, and the Kabardian alphabet, developed jointly by Bersei and the Russian military, ethnographer and linguist P. Uslar ^{[10, 35]}. Despite these variants of writing, in Russia the most famous work of U. Bersei remains the "Primer of the Circassian language", containing the writing of the Circassian language on an Arabic graphic basis ^[14].

Thus, the purpose of attempts to create alphabets in Russia and Turkey, which in both states were carried out by intellectuals associated with the military and ruling circles, was to construct a written language-the basis for the dissemination of literacy and printing. This process was an integral part of nation-building, since the emerging variants of the written language reflected the variants of national projects. On the territory of the Russian Empire, the Circassian language was most often represented as a single language for all the Adygs, as evidenced by philological works describing its dialects ("dialects") – Kabardian, which sometimes stood out as a separate language, and others. This process ended after the arrival of Soviet power with the appearance of fundamental linguistic descriptions of the Adyghe and Kabardino-Circassian languages, which became the fundamental elements of several Soviet national projects. In the Ottoman Empire, in turn, there was a tendency to unite the Adyghe language (the separation of dialects was noted less often), Adyghe and Abkhaz-Abaza or all North Caucasian languages, which can often be observed in the Circassian diaspora at the present time, as there are dominated by Caucasian, Pan-Adyghe and Abkhaz-Adyghe national projects. One way or another, the historical processes of language construction through the creation of writing have had a significant impact on the perception of the Circassian language – and in this regard, the Circassian nation – in Russia and Turkey, which have developed to date.

As a result of the conducted research, it can be stated that the creation of writing has become an important phase of Circassian nation-building in its various variations. In the conditions of interaction with Russian and Turkish (Ottoman) society, Circassians invariably began to develop their own writing, however, depending on the living conditions and socio-political situation, they chose different alphabets, perceived as a cultural orientation. Moreover, writing was developed by Circassians for different languages: Pan-Adyghe or Kabardian in Russia, Pan-Adyghe, Adygo-Abkhazo-Abaza, Pan-Caucasian, Ubykh in Turkey, compiling different lists of dialects in accordance with this. These first attempts to create a written language, which in Russia also had a largely external character, laid the foundation for the subsequent variable development of Circassian nationalism, which is reflected in the level of proficiency in the native languages of Circassians in the Caucasus and in the diaspora and communication between Russian and Turkish Circassians.