Towards building a model for the formation of reading literacy in the course of teaching academic subjects in middle school

Sokolova Ol'ga Veniaminovna ORCID: 0000-0002-5659-7104 Scientitic Associate, Laboratory of Design of Activity-Based Education, Research Institute of Urban Studies and Global Education of Moscow City University 4, Vtoroy Selskohoziajstvenny proezd, Moscow, Russia, 129226 osokol2001@gmail.com Lvovskii Vladimir Aleksandrovich ORCID: 0000-0002-1815-0301 PhD in Psychology Head of the Laboratory of Design of Activity-Based Education, Research Institute of Urban Studies and Global Education of Moscow City University 4, Vtoroy Selskohoziajstvenny proezd, Moscow, Russia, 129226 LvovskiyVA@mgpu.ru Znamenskaja Oksana Vitalievna ORCID: 0000-0001-5507-358X PhD in Physics and Mathematics Docent, the department of Information Technologies of Teaching and Continuing Education, Institute of Pedagogy, Psychology and Sociology of Siberian Federal University; Expert of the Laboratory of Desing of Activity-Based Education of Scientific Research Institute of Urban Studies and Global Education of Moscow City University  79, Svobodny pr., Krasnoyarsk, Krasnoyarsk Krai, Russia, 660079 OVZnamenskaya@sfu-kras.ru

Dolgodvorova Elena Yur'evna ORCID: 0000-0002-6839-6692 Senior Educator, the department of Disciplines of Social and Scientific Cycle, Krasnoyarsk Regional Institute for Advanced Training of Teachers 19, Matrosova st., Krasnoyarsk, Krasnoyarsk Krai, Russia, 660079 dolgodvorova@kipk.ru

Introduction

The formation of reading literacy is considered as one of the goals of basic education: the Federal State Educational Standard calls among the results of education "mastering language and reading culture as a means of cognition of the world" and mastering ways of working with information ^[1]. At the same time, the results of the PISA international study, in which for many years the Russian Federation has been ranked low in the international ranking ^[2], combined with the high performance of our schoolchildren in the PIRLS study, indicates serious problems of the primary school ^[3]. Hypotheses about the reasons for this state of affairs have been formulated in a number of studies, for example, in ^{[4, 5]}.

The results of the analysis of the results of international research often reach the methodologist and the practice teacher in the form of recommendations concerning additions to existing training courses, for example, in the form of requirements to include in the educational process "tasks in the PISA format", competence-oriented tasks, etc.; in the form of collections of special tasks focused on the formation of reader literacy; in the form of separate techniques and strategies. Both the teacher and the student may have an idea that it is possible to teach reading only in a "specially designated place", outside of "ordinary" lessons and textbooks. It is not surprising that the additional introduction of various "over-subject" tasks and forms of extracurricular activities into teaching has been one of the main areas of work to improve reader literacy for many years, but this has not led to a significant improvement in the situation.

The question of the need for "systemic complex changes in educational activities" to radically change the results in the field of functional literacy (including reading) was raised by the authors of the project "Monitoring the formation of functional literacy" ^[6]. The task of this project is to "develop, based on a system—activity approach, a system of tasks for 5th- 9th grade students", which should launch the process of updating educational and methodological materials "taking into account the reorientation of the education system to new results related to the "skills of the 21st century"" ^[7].

This article continues the conversation about "systemic changes in educational activities". The authors propose to look at the situation not only from the side of control and measurement or diagnostic materials that determine reader deficits, but also from the opposite side - from the side of the possibilities inherent in the content of educational subjects and in the ways of organizing and transmitting this content. This can be an important step towards creating a model for the formation of reader literacy, in which the main components and necessary conditions of this process would be determined without going into special techniques and methods external to academic subjects. The article presents an attempt to outline approaches to creating such a model.

Basic concepts, general provisions and principles

1. The paper uses the definition of reading literacy adopted in the PISA study: "Reading literacy is a person's ability to understand and use written texts, reflect on them and engage in reading in order to achieve their goals, expand their knowledge and capabilities, participate in social life." This definition is considered in detail by G. A. Zuckerman ^[8]. The concept of "text" in relation to the model under consideration is further disclosed in more detail when discussing the contribution of the subject "Russian language" to the formation of reader literacy. Note that it is impossible to teach reading, understanding texts and thinking about them without taking into account the communicative nature of the text, without unfolding the communicative situation in which the text is generated or transformed depending on the subject of speech and the addressee.

2. A textbook (educational materials) is a complexly organized text that has its own structure, internal logic, and is addressed to a specific reader. Like any other text, it contains a model of its reader. Since we are talking about a learning situation, it is not just addressed to a certain reader, but forms it through explicit and implicitly present author's attitudes.

3. The proposed model for the formation of reader literacy is based on the idea of the relationship and interdependence of subject and meta-subject learning outcomes. The work in the subject plan is based on a certain level of meta-subject development that has already been formed in the previous training. As applied to reading literacy, this means that the existing level of reading literacy among students makes it possible to use work with text as a means in relation to the development of subject content. At the same time, the subject training itself can be built in such a way as to provide the next step in the development of meta-subject skills. This means that mastering the subject content in a certain (activity-based) way based on special educational texts leads to a new step in the development of reader literacy. This theoretical position is experimentally confirmed by the results of so far isolated studies of the connection between educational actions and text understanding, for example, the research of E. V. Chudinova and V. E. Zaitseva on the connection of text understanding with the action of modeling ^[9].

4. Taking into account the above, the main components of the model of reader literacy formation were identified and the requirements for it were formulated:

- it is necessary to rely on pedagogical technologies, in which understanding, meaning formation, and inclusion in activities are at the forefront: developmental learning (D. B. Elkonin, V. V. Davydov), the school of communicative didactics (V. I. Tyupa, Y. L. Troitsky), etc.; 

- it is necessary to identify and describe ways of organizing educational materials that contain a model of a literate reader, thereby contributing to its formation;

- the possible contribution of each academic subject to the formation of reader's literacy should be determined, while it is necessary to take into account the specifics of the academic subject, the goals and objectives of the study, the principles of construction, the content lines highlighted in the subject;

- the "textual potential" of each academic subject should be identified and described (what types of texts are "included in the orbit" of the subject, what reading skills they require and, accordingly, which of the skills can be formed when working with these texts);

- one of the main elements of the model should be the typology of educational and subject tasks, the solution of which develops reading skills;

- model educational and subject tasks of each type should be described, aimed at the formation of reading skills;

- the process of forming reading skills must be considered together with "writing" skills: the generation of your own text is an indispensable condition for the formation of reading literacy;

- ways of checking and ways of forming reader literacy should be divorced.

This article attempts to typologize the situations and goals of reading and correlate them with groups of subject tasks working on the formation and development of reading skills. The analysis is based on the material of academic subjects from four subject areas: Russian Russian Language and Literature" ("Russian Language"), "Mathematics and Computer Science" ("Mathematics", "Algebra", "Geometry"), "Social science subjects" ("History") and "Natural Science subjects" ("Physics"). The level of education is basic, the age range is grades 5-7. The typology is based on the ideas expressed in ^[10], where, based on the analysis of PISA materials, several classes of reading tasks were identified depending on the reading goals. 

Let us dwell in more detail on the specifics of the texts that a student encounters while studying various academic subjects, the peculiarities of working with texts within different academic subjects, the contribution of each academic subject to the formation of reader literacy.

Analysis of academic subjects from the point of view of the formation of reader literacy

Russian language

The Russian language occupies a special position among other academic subjects, since its objective and planned result is the development of language as a means of communication and a means of cognition. The text is one of the key concepts of the subject "Russian language". The analysis of the "Approximate basic educational program of basic general education" ^[11] in terms of meta-subject and subject results and the project of the "Approximate basic educational program of basic general education" ^[12] corresponding to new educational standards ^[13] shows that meta-subject results concerning semantic reading and working with information are conceptually provided, first of all in total, the content of the subject "Russian language". The project "Programs" in the purpose of studying the subject "Russian language" includes "the development of functional literacy: the ability to search for information, extract and transform the necessary information, interpret, understand and use texts of different formats (continuous, non-continuous text, infographics, etc.); the development of strategies and tactics of information and semantic processing of the texta, mastering the ways of understanding the text, its purpose, general meaning, communicative intention of the author; logical structure, the role of linguistic means" ^[14].

In this regard, the content of the concept of "text" in the school course of the Russian language requires special attention.

Let's consider what is meant by the text in the textbooks of the Russian language.

"A text is a group of sentences united into a whole by a theme and a basic idea. The sentences in the text are interconnected by lexical and grammatical means. The thought in the text develops: each following sentence carries new information" ^[15]. Definitions from other textbooks (for example, ^[16],[17]) also focus on the external form of the text (several sentences, means of communication, sequence).

Note that the idea of the text does not develop from the first class to the fifth: "The text consists of sentences. The sentences in the text are related in meaning. The text can be titled " ^[18].

The text model presented in most school textbooks does not have a functional dimension, it is a directly observable sequence of signs with which you can perform a limited number of manipulations: restore logical connections, split into parts, etc. Reading such a sequence of signs does not make sense outside of the educational situation, it is closed within its framework.

For the formation of reading literacy, it is not enough to focus students' attention on the external signs of the text. The proposed model provides for a step-by-step construction/construction of the concept of "text" "from the general to the particular": the text has a communicative nature and arises in a situation when a speech subject realizes his communicative intention in relation to another speech subject; the text depends on three (mainly) components of the communicative situation: the addressee, the addressee and the subject of speech; the text contains information about these three components. The text is impossible outside of a communicative situation, therefore, when introducing and forming the concept of "text", it is impossible to do without modeling situations of text generation (in particular, for example, the need to transform the text in accordance with a change in the target setting or a change in the idea of the addressee). As a working definition, the text can be taken as "an information self-sufficient speech message with a clearly defined goal-setting and oriented in its intent to its addressee. ...Information is entered into the text and recorded in it not by itself, but for something, to achieve a certain goal, and from the sender's point of view it is always essential, ... designed for a certain effect and impact on the addressee" ^[19].

Movement in different content lines ^[20] requires working with different types of texts and implies different goals of referring to texts.

The line "Language device. Language as a system":

- texts containing basic scientific information about the language, selected and specially adapted for schoolchildren: educational, popular science texts about the language, representing an educational and scientific description, examples of reasoning about certain linguistic phenomena;

- texts containing algorithms of action and description of methods of analysis of language units: schemes, plans, memos;

- texts used as material for observation, language analysis and language experiment: texts of different styles and genres, including artistic ones.

The line "Language norm. Spelling. Culture of speech":

-    texts as a source of information about spelling, pronunciation, normative compatibility, etc.: texts of a reference, prescriptive nature — rules, dictionary entries;

-    texts as a material for training: deformed or "non-patterned" (from the point of view of the language norm) texts of different styles and genres, including artistic ones; model texts for copying; constructed texts saturated with certain orthograms or punctograms.

The line "Speech. Speech activity":

-    texts as an object of analysis (from the point of view of construction, purpose, language means): texts of different spheres of communication and genres;

-    texts as a subject of reconstruction and transformation: texts of different spheres of communication and genres, including non-verbal.

Thus, in the academic subject "Russian language" texts of any genre, any sphere of communication, using different sign systems can be used (in the case of "translation" into a verbal text). Limitations in the use of texts are related to the age and level of thinking of students: the volume and complexity of the text. Not any of the listed references to the text "works" on the formation of reader literacy.

From the description of the text potential of the subject "Russian language" it is clear that the text in the learning process is used for different purposes. Traditionally, some types of work with texts take up most of the time (text as a material for training spelling and punctuation skills; as a rule, fragments of literary texts are used for this purpose; separate sentences can be used in the same function, which indicates that the communicative nature of the text in this case turns out to be insignificant), some — less (for example, texts as material for observation), some are almost not represented (work on the transformation or reconstruction of the text). If you look at the representation of texts of different styles and genres in the course, then you can also fix the unevenness: there are almost no texts of the business sphere, few popular scientific texts of non-linguistic subjects, encyclopedic, technical, etc. The model assumes an increase in the number of authentic texts (as carrying information about the situation of creation), an increase in the genre diversity of the texts used and the proportion of tasks aimed at editing, transformation, reconstruction of texts, i.e. tasks in which understanding is required and the execution of which is impossible without "deciphering" the author's intention, taking into account the addressee and ownership the subject of speech. Due to the use of texts of different genres and speech spheres while maintaining a common communicative framework (first of all, the target setting, the author's position and the addressee), a student in the 5th-6th grade should develop the ability to establish the dependence of the form of the text on extralinguistic factors, and should also accumulate experience in converting specific texts.

The proposed model provides for strengthening the connection between two content lines within the educational subject ? "Language system" and "Speech. Speech activity" — due to constant reference to the functioning of language units in the text. "The processes of generation and understanding of utterance and the analysis of linguistic material are closely interrelated. The relationship is provided by the change of the student's position: the participant of communication is a researcher (observer). The principle is a constant shuttle movement from one plane to another. One of the main methods providing the transition is a linguistic experiment, a test" ^{[21, p. 16]}. For a trial-productive action, see: ^[22] As a result, the student learns language tools in practice, learns to choose them in accordance with the communicative goal. Such practical mastering of language tools in combination with analysis opens up ways for the student to understand someone else's text.

So, the contribution of the subject "Russian language" to the formation of reading literacy in 5-7 cl. may consist in the formation of the concept of "text"; in the formation of the ability to establish the dependence of the form of the text on the components of the communicative situation; in gaining experience of transformation, reconstruction, experimentation with specific texts primarily at the level of language means, respectively ? in the development of the practice of functional capabilities of language units.

To determine the types of tasks based on the subject material, embedded in the logic of the subject and at the same time developing reading skills, it is necessary to understand in which learning situations and why the student needs to refer to the text. Let's list these situations.

1) Search for information to solve a specific practical problem (reference to a dictionary, reference book, algorithm, memo, plan, sample, etc.)

2) Referring to educational and scientific texts about language as a source of scientific explanation/explanations of linguistic phenomena, the results of observations or experiments. In this case, the appeal to the text should be preceded by the question "why?", "how is it arranged?", the text does not contain a direct answer to the question, and when working with the text, contradictions, semantic lacunae, one's own misunderstanding may be found, new questions will need to be formulated, requests for missing information.

3) Structuring of the information contained in the text / texts — "translation" into another form (scheme, table, etc.) — ordering for their own understanding or for another addressee (for example, a neighbor on the desk).

4) Referring to educational and scientific texts about language as a certain type of text (definition, explanation, proof, description of experimental results, dictionary entry, etc.). The goal is to master the ways of "packaging" information specific to this subject area.

Difficulties in understanding the educational and scientific text consist mainly in the fact that the student has no conceptual supports on which the text is based. The student reads words for which there is no experience of constructing a concept. E. V. Chudinova and V. E. Zaitseva write: "it is impossible to understand even an extremely clearly written natural science text if the basic concepts hidden behind the text are not built beforehand" ^{[23, p. 45]}. This remark applies not only to the natural science text, but also to linguistic and any other scientific text. Therefore, from the point of view of subject logic, the educational text must necessarily be included in the work with concepts (reading and memorizing a definition is not equal to constructing a concept, but can be included in this work at a certain stage); and, from the point of view of subject logic, probably reading the text should follow observation, experiment, analysis language material, attempts at independent formulation, comparison of formulations given by different students in the classroom. With such work, a semantic field is created that provides the possibility of understanding the educational and scientific text, reading the text is included in the solution of the educational task. The inclusion scenarios and the purpose of referring to the text can be different: from the search for additional information to the problematization of the conclusion obtained during the analysis of the language material. In any case, in the 5th-7th grade, part of the work on understanding the text is taken out into the public space. The comparison of a number of statements on the same topic, answering the same question, written with the same purpose, but by different authors (students), makes us delve into the understanding of the differences between these statements, i.e. interpret, detect gaps, evaluate the accuracy /inaccuracy of the wording, completeness / incompleteness of the description, correspondence of the form of the utterance and its purpose, etc.

5) Referring to authentic texts/fragments of texts of various genres as experimental material. Purpose: to search for linguistic means, to concretize the essential relationship between the form of the text and its communicative purpose, the author's intention. Actions: reconstruction (restoration of a deformed text in a situation where the general meaning of the text / intent is known), deformation (for example, exclusion of all adjectives or diminutive suffixes from the text, etc.), transformation (for example, transformation of a description of a dwarf into a description of a giant) in accordance with specified conditions. An indispensable condition for the unfolding of such tasks is a group discussion of the results obtained and an assessment of the language tools used in terms of compliance with the plan or their impact on changing the meaning of the text.

Close to this is the creation / construction of your own text with rigidly defined formal characteristics /limitations that force you to look for ways to implement the idea. Such an action can be designated as a test — an action of a child with language material that does not imply an exact (predictable) result. There is no sample that a child's written statement should correspond to. The purpose of such a test is not to create an essay that meets all the requirements, but to test a language tool, to "grope" its functionality, followed by a discussion of the results obtained.

Why do we consider such tasks to be tasks that contribute to the formation of reader literacy? Such tasks trigger mechanisms of understanding, and understanding at different levels: verbal-semantic, conceptual and motivational.

The situations of referring to various kinds of texts in the process of learning the Russian language can be reduced to three types and, accordingly, three types of tasks can be distinguished (in terms of reading goals and the formation of appropriate reading skills): informational, aimed at finding special information and implying the ability to navigate in a number of special texts; interpretive, aimed at understanding and extracting meanings; metatextual, aimed at "removing" the form of the text, analyzing its "device".

Mathematics

In the main school, mathematics is represented by three disciplines: "Mathematics" (5th, 6th grade); "Algebra" and "Geometry" (grades 7-9).

Unlike other subject disciplines, in mathematics lessons, students of the age group in question do not encounter authentic texts at all, such as scientific articles, original notes of mathematicians about their own activities, etc., to a minimum extent, popular science and popular literature (from the field of entertaining mathematics) are involved in the educational process. The main carriers of educational texts in mathematics are textbooks, textbooks, workbooks, problem books and "answer books" on a printed basis or in the form of an electronic document. Video recordings containing the oral speech of a lecturer (teacher, tutor) and symbolic notes on the blackboard can also be attributed to the text environment that has been actively used recently.

Educational mathematical texts differ significantly from the texts that students deal with when studying other subject disciplines (see, for example, ^{[24, 25]}). The famous mathematician and didacticist M. B. Balk ^[26] noted that the work on a mathematical text consists "not so much in reading what is written, as in restoring what is omitted."

Such a reader's position is dictated by the following features of the educational mathematical text: conciseness of language, the presence of stable language constructions for expressing different semantic units; conciseness and use of symbols and graphic elements; explicit or hidden numerous cross-references to mathematical facts and methods of action that the author believes are known or necessary in reasoning; logical and informational omissions that the reader needs to expand (for example, part of the transformations was omitted when simplifying the expression). One of the main types of mathematical texts is evidence—based reasoning, for the understanding of which it is necessary not only to possess the subject content, but also to be able to see the place and role of mathematical facts in the logical structure of the text, to distinguish logical connectives and argumentation.

The contribution of the academic subject "Mathematics" to the formation of reader literacy is due to the abstract and at the same time model content of mathematical objectivity. Educational mathematical texts are a special type of educational texts, the semantic reading of which contributes to the formation of reading skills associated with the "unfolding" of an integral information field based on "collapsed", incomplete information presented in the text, including the presentation of the same content in different sign-semiotic systems.

Reader's literacy in the academic subject "Mathematics", interpreted as the ability to understand, create and use written texts, is manifested in solving the following educational and subject tasks identified on the basis of the analysis of mathematical activity ^{[27, 28]}.

1) The task of modeling a situation in a mathematical language, requiring the ability to transform a text from a verbal to a sign-symbolic form and vice versa, or from one sign-symbolic system to another (algebraic and geometric language) while preserving the meaning (mathematical structure of objects and relationships between them). Here the reader's literacy is manifested in the ability to analyze the text, recode information. Depending on the complexity of the subject situation, such a task can be attributed to interpretative or analytical in the typology of educational tasks for the formation of reader literacy. This type of problem includes text problems in mathematics, problems that require a transition from an algebraic description language to a geometric one and vice versa, so-called practical problems in which it is necessary to choose suitable mathematical tools that allow you to get out of some everyday.

2) The task of substantiating the truth of mathematical knowledge, that is, constructing evidence-based reasoning about mathematical objects, which can be attributed to a metatext problem.

In teaching, a written text containing a mathematical proof (evidence-based reasoning) can be included in the system of the following actions: reproduction, understanding, construction, evaluation (correctness and rigor) and transformation (simplification, generalization, etc.). Reproduction and understanding of evidence-based reasoning (reconstruction of arguments and logical chain of reasoning) requires the ability to analyze the text, to break it into logical parts, to restore the missing parts, while simultaneously retaining the semantic relation of these parts to the whole — the main idea of the proof. Simplification, evaluation and generalization of evidence-based reasoning requires the ability to check the text of the reasoning for the necessity of all the premises and logical transitions contained in it, keeping the relation of the purpose of the text, the content and the logical form of its construction (the laws of formal logic).

Here, reader literacy is manifested in the ability to analyze a text from the position of a logical model that determines its structure.

3) An educational and research task, the result of which is the construction of a new concept or system of knowledge about a mathematical object. The educational mathematical text, as a rule, contains only the presentation of the results of mathematical research. To understand it, it is necessary to follow the logic of the presentation, be able to restore the missing elements of information and logical transitions, "expand" the content collapsed in the text, including generating its own meanings (give your own example and counterexample to the definition, "author's" drawing to a geometric theorem, etc.). Depending on the completeness and coherence of the text, as well as on the type of questions to the text, the reader faces an interpretive or analytical task.

An important stage of the educational and mathematical research conducted by students (carried out within the framework of project or educational and research activities) is the re-registration of its results in the form of different types of texts with different addressees: a text for communication (containing definitions, theorems, hypotheses, etc.) and a text for application (instruction, algorithm, rule). In the activity of re-registration of the text, there is an experience of proficiency in scientific and technical language: the rule of phrase construction, the choice of language means, etc.

Thus, when studying mathematics, understanding the educational text is a necessary element in the formation of mathematical literacy. Difficulties encountered by teachers and students when reading educational and mathematical texts may be due to a lack of understanding of what type of reading task should be set for the student, what type of texts it requires, and how this task is embedded in the context of the currently being solved educational and subject problem. It seems that the holistic situation of working with texts should include both reading and independent generation of mathematical texts.

Physics

To determine the contribution of physics to the formation of reader literacy, it is necessary to consider the specifics of educational activities ^[29], which should be implemented in physics lessons. Let's analyze the unfolding of educational activities in the 7th grade on the subject of "Physics" using texts. Texts with physical and, more broadly, natural science content, provide great opportunities in terms of creating an educational situation. In some cases, it is advisable to offer group work with different (sometimes contradictory) texts. In the process of studying and discussing text material, students come to the formulation of a concrete practical problem, which in grade 7 is most often associated with the subsequent solution of one or more experimental problems.

Subsequent discussions and problematizations allow the teacher to "remove" a specific practical task in the classroom, that is, to move from focusing on achieving a specific result to highlighting a class of tasks and finding a common way to solve it. At the heart of this general method is a distinguished essential relation that generates all the variety of a class of concrete practical tasks.

The further advancement of children in physical content is associated with the fixation of the highlighted essential relationship in one form or another, that is, with modeling. Modeling in physics in terms of working with text is related to:

- with the construction of descriptive and explanatory models corresponding to experimental and theoretical scientific methods (in grade 7 we are limited to descriptive models and experimental method);

- with "encryption" — symbolic/schematic/graphical text substitution;

- with "decryption" — the construction of an oral or written statement according to given conditional records (in the form of drawings, diagrams, formulas, graphs).

In accordance with the structure of V. V. Davydov's educational activity, subsequent actions are associated with the study of the model "in its pure form", with its concretization and the construction of a class of tasks that can be summed up in a general way — all these actions can be associated with working with texts. Special attention is paid to control and evaluation actions, which can also be carried out using special texts.

We consider physics education in the 7th grade as the first year of study (although a number of educational organizations begin physical education from the 6th or even 5th grade, which, in our opinion, is absolutely justified by the age characteristics of younger teenagers). The selection of content plays an important role in the formation of reader literacy, and priority should be given to "experimental" physics, in which modeling of real processes and phenomena, the construction of descriptive and control models, the solution of prediction and control problems come to the fore ^{[30, pp. 4-5, 7-9, 18, 93-94]}.

The contribution of the academic subject "Physics" to the formation of reader's literacy is determined by its specificity as a natural science subject with accentuated modeling.

Reader literacy in the academic subject "Physics" is manifested in the ability to analyze, link and transform texts, which present three internally interconnected plans: subject, model-shaped and symbolic.

We share the position of V. K. Tserlyukevich and D. R. Myshko ^[31], according to which, both in the study of mathematics by schoolchildren and in the study of physics, the processes of thinking development and the formation of reader literacy are closely related and mutually influenced. The main task of teaching physics is the development of thinking, for this the lesson should be organized as a communicative event in which the movement of thought entails understanding, which is formed into a text, which, in turn, requires understanding (extracting meaning) by another participant in the communicative situation.

"In the subject plan, the external sides of objects and phenomena, their signs, properties, features are fixed by means of science — reality is displayed, but reality is special, culturally transformed and has become the subject of science. The model-figurative reflects the internal, essential, necessary laws of objects and phenomena. Two contradictory sides of this way of presenting knowledge in the educational process should be taken into account. In relation to science, it is a set of models, laws, principles, etc. (all those components of the theory that form its "core"). In relation to educational activity in the model-figurative plan, students develop and consolidate the subjective characteristics of the emerging knowledge (conceptual images, ideal constructions, etc.). These internal patterns, refracted through the specific conditions of the existence of objects and phenomena, are formed in various ways in "linguistic" constructions and form a special symbolic plan" ^{[32, p. 127]}.

On these grounds, the following typology of subject problems in physics is proposed. Two large classes of problems are distinguished: the first class is associated with some model representations, the second class is associated with the transformation of model representations (we do not consider it, since it is impractical to include it in the 7th grade physics course). In the first class of tasks , the following types can be distinguished:

- tasks for correlating textual descriptions of reality (phenomena, processes, states of objects) and model representations; reading goals may be associated with the identification of essential elements of the description that allow for correct classification according to one or more model bases specified explicitly; with the creation of text under specified model conditions and taking into account a given system of constraints;

- tasks for the transformation of textual descriptions of reality with implicitly given model representations; the goals of reading are associated with an adequate transformation of the textual description in conditions when the model itself mediating this transformation needs to be restored;

- tasks for converting a textual description into a symbolic-symbolic (graphic, schematic), as well as for creating a textual description based on a symbolic one; the reading goals are associated with such a separation of the model (essential relation of the situation) implicitly represented in the textual description of reality, which allows for an adequate translation of the text into another (symbolic) language;

- tasks for changing textual descriptions of reality adequate to the given transformation of sign structures; the goals of reading in this case are associated with the restoration of the model plan, with the interpretation of sign transformations in the context of identified model representations, with the creation of a textual description of the corresponding transformations of reality.

The class-wide, group or pair solution and discussion of experimental problems is associated with the nomination and fixation of hypotheses. Discussions unfolding in the classroom or in a remote format should be reflected in the "chronicle" ? a fairly detailed description of various ideas, hypotheses, the results of their verification, etc. This process is important in the formation of reader literacy (here and further, the well—known principle of M. A. Rybnikova "from a small writer to a large reader" is implemented, see: From a small writer to a large reader. — Russian language in the Soviet school, 1929, No. 2). Ideally, the "chronicles" created by different students or even by different classes in a network format becomes the basis for special work at the end of the school year to create their own physics textbook. Such a textbook should have at least two characteristics: it should be understandable to its creators and it should be valuable for an external reader (for other students).

History

The following types of texts are considered in the framework of the subject "History": "mixed" historical texts: historical maps (schematic map, local plans), time tape, chronological table, genealogical scheme; primary sources/documents - what remains of historical time: historical documents (chronicles, annals, chronicles, historical works); documents of a state nature (letters, decrees, orders, laws, contracts, etc.), personal documents (memoirs, diaries, letters, etc.), literary texts as historical monuments of the era; visual sources: paintings, drawings, cartoons, posters, photographs; works of professional historians; educational and popular science texts.

In order to talk about the formation of reader literacy in history lessons, it is necessary to take into account several important provisions. First, history is understood as a set of different views (interpretations) on events recorded in texts (in a broad semiotic sense). Second: texts become historical sources after their transformation with the help of certain mental operations (first of all, any text becomes a historical source when the researcher (student) poses a question related to the historical past; analysis, synthesis, interpretation of information in texts, determination of the place and meaning of the source for the study of a historical event (phenomenon and process) and constitute the essence of the transformation of texts in the study of history). "It is the question that the historian asks that makes it possible to elevate certain traces left by the past to the rank of sources and documents. Before the question is raised about them, traces of the past are not even perceived as possible traces of anything" ^{[33, p. 83]}. And the third: historical knowledge is aimed at restoring (reconstructing) the meaning of situations or facts (events, phenomena, processes) based on the interpretation of historical sources. The priority methods of historical cognition are interpretation (interpretation), understanding alternative opinions, comparing the positions of the authors of texts in time and space.

In history lessons, students, solving a learning task, extract information from historical sources, reconstruct events (phenomena, processes) and make up the author's version of the event in the form of a coherent and consistent description, or in other words, "translate" the information contained in historical sources into the "language" of their own understanding. Students enter into communication with the past through a set of texts reflecting this historical past.

Thus, the purpose of the educational subject "History" is the formation of historical thinking, which can be defined as an understanding of an event (phenomenon, process), comprehension of an event (phenomenon, process) and self-determination about a particular historical event (phenomenon, process).

In history lessons, students learn to understand and comprehend the past:

- extract/collect and analyze materials drawn from various sources of historical information;

-    consider facts, events, phenomena, actions in a specific historical context;

- evaluate various versions and opinions about past historical events;

- distinguish between facts and points of view, identify errors, falsifications and stereotypes;

- to formulate judgments and make reasonable conclusions based on the analysis of available evidence and the study of a wide range of points of view, to be aware that these conclusions may be re-evaluated in the light of new facts and interpretations.

The formation of these skills is important not only within the framework of one academic subject. The search for information that allows us to describe the phenomenon from different sides, the distinction of facts and opinions, the search for evidence, the possibility of different interpretations and different assessments of the same phenomenon, events depending on the context are components of reader literacy.

A productive way to achieve the stated goals in history lessons is the creation of special educational materials (a set of texts on a specific topic or problem, on the basis of which different tasks can be set), which can be called text constructs; and the organization of students' activities to interact with such text constructs to build an educational dialogue.

The organization of teaching history on the basis of specially created educational materials for history lessons is described in the works of Y. L. Troitsky, E. E. Vyazemsky and O. Y. Strelova. Thus, Y. L. Troitsky builds the technology of historical education on the creation of documentary-historiographical complexes compiled in accordance with three principles (different positions in time, different points of view on the event, genre "contradiction") ^[34]. E. E. Vyazemsky and O. Y. Strelova call such educational materials documentary-methodical complexes (DMK), specially prepared for the lesson on the principles of species diversity of historical sources and multi-perspective ^{[35, p. 132]}. DMK document packages are united by a topic (question) and can have both a linear (sequential movement from text to text) and non-linear structure (complex relationships between texts through questions and assignments).

Thus, the creation of text constructs (texts and assignments / questions to them) becomes a necessary condition for the formation of reader literacy in history lessons, with the help of which the teacher gets the opportunity to build an educational dialogue and start the process of understanding and the need to refer to other texts.

In an educational situation, the texts themselves create a field for discussion, for communication, change the positions of the teacher and the student in the lesson.

The text construct may be based on: key historical events (for example, the baptism of Rus, the Battle of Kulikovo); debatable historical issues (for example, the formation of ancient Russian statehood, the relationship between Russia and the Golden Horde, etc.); the evolution of the most important historical concepts and phenomena (for example, enslavement of peasants / serfdom, peasant community / autocracy); events related to places of historical memory (for example, "The Shlisselburg Fortress as a place of memory": history, evolution of the place, protection of the Russian/Russian/Soviet state, opposition to the authorities, etc.).

When constructing text tasks, it is necessary to take into account the content lines of the study of history ^{[36, p. 13-14]}: "Historical time" (chronology and periodization); "Historical space" (historical map of Russia and the world, its dynamics; reflection on it of the interaction of man, society and nature, the main characteristics of human development); "Historical movement"(dynamics of people's social life in interrelation); "Man in history" (living conditions and everyday life of people; needs, interests and motives of their actions; perception of the world and values, life and activity of a single person in the context of time). The content lines of the study of history are not separate blocks of the construction of the subject, they are rather aspects of the consideration of events (phenomena, processes) in interrelation and dynamics. Meaningful lines "manifest themselves" in tasks for texts, in the topics of text tasks, in addressing certain types of texts.

By means of text constructs, it is possible to set various tasks: extracting information about the signs/ characteristics of historical objects and subjects (personalities, events); creating a holistic description of a historical object (event, phenomenon, process); formulating questions /requests for missing information; constructing a historical concept; searching for discrepancies in descriptions of events (phenomena, processes); analysis and reconstruction of a historical event (phenomenon, process); determination of the authorship of historical sources; determination of the author's point of view on the event (phenomenon, process); formulation of one's own point of view (judgment) on the historical event (phenomenon, process) and proof based on historical facts; "transfer" of historical information to another time and space (historical parallels); "translation" of information into another form (diagram, table, drawing, etc.).

These tasks can be combined into several types: analytical tasks (for example, a holistic description of a historical object, involving the search for information in historical sources of various types, the selection of necessary information, its analysis, conclusions and design in a new text; the construction of a historical concept, involving the search for information in historical sources of various types, the selection and analysis of information, the formulation request for missing information, generalization); positional tasks (for example, description and evaluation of a historical phenomenon involving the determination of the authors' positions, determination of the units of divergence of positions, comparison, search for contradictions, formulation of questions of historical discussion, evidence); metatextual tasks (for example, "transfer" of information to another form; "removal" of the method of description a historical phenomenon that requires the allocation of units of description, analysis and evaluation of the form of description).

Conclusions and conclusion

The volume of the article does not allow us to consider in more detail the types of tasks, the principles of the organization of educational materials, the relationship between the formation and diagnosis of reading literacy, the place of other academic subjects, but the materials presented allow us to assert that academic subjects related to different subject areas can be considered from a single "reader's" position, while the specifics of the subjects are not leveled, on the contrary, it acquires an additional "textual" dimension. The article formulates the general principles of working with texts and highlights the specifics for each subject under consideration. This work can be continued in relation to other academic subjects.

It is also shown that the formation of reader literacy in its main forms can and should be carried out in the course of solving educational and subject tasks by schoolchildren; situations in which the appeal to texts in the learning process has not only the character of "educational necessity", but is dictated by the logic of solving cognitive tasks, which can be a lever for creating internal motivation, are considered.

The identification of types of tasks can help authors of educational materials, methodologists and teachers, firstly, to analyze the methods and materials used in the learning process from the point of view of the formation of reading skills and, secondly, to correct or create educational-subject tasks, in solving which, without the introduction of additional, external to the subject procedures are achieved both the required subject and meta-subject results.