On the Typology of the Negative Image of an Anarchist in Graphic Art at the Turn of the XIX-XX centuries.

Velásquez Sabogal Paúl Marcelo Postgraduate student, Department of History of Western European Art, St. Petersburg State University (St. Petersburg State University) 199034, Russia, g. Saint Petersburg, nab. Universitetskaya, 7–9 st073511@student.spbu.ru Other publications by this author

The problem of iconographic interpretation of the image of an anarchist at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. it remains not considered in both domestic and foreign art criticism. At the same time, the types of representation of the anarchist and his body represent a fruitful ground for study. The relevance of the research lies in the fact that this publication for the first time systematizes and discusses the main thematic and iconographic directions of the negative interpretation of the anarchist image, shedding light on the gaps existing in world art criticism. The methods used in the work are as follows: a method based on the analysis of sources, a method used to collect historical information and study iconographic sources. The iconographic method is important in order to carefully consider all the components of paintings with the image of an anarchist. The method of artistic and stylistic analysis is used by us in order to describe the style and composition of the graphic works under consideration. The theoretical basis of the research is the publications of modern historians and literary critics devoted to the key aspects of the emergence and development of tendencies to mythologize the anarchist based on his negative interpretation. The main research in this area is written in Russian ^[2-4], Spanish ^{[12,16, 17]}, English ^[22,32], French ^[18] and Ukrainian ^[1]. The approaches of our predecessors have prepared a historical and theoretical panorama for the consideration of the topic of our article, namely graphic art as a carrier of the features of the negative archetypes of the anarchist in the light of right and left political trends. The practical significance of the work lies in the possibility of using the materials of the article in analytical research, as well as in the process of preparing for publication of sources on the problem of dialogue between politics and aesthetics in the light of a certain iconographic problem. The scientific novelty of the research is determined by the fact that the previously not systematized thematic and iconographic directions of one of the interpretations of the anarchist image are ratified, which are necessary for considering the field of research that remains marginal in modern art criticism to this day.

To achieve our goal, we propose to solve the following tasks: to analyze the trends existing in the negative interpretation of the image of an anarchist in the graphic art of print culture at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries, and, through this analysis, to demonstrate to readers and viewers the need to consider other types of classification of this image.

Between 1880 and 1930, the interpretation of the anarchist image was diverse. Medical and legal sciences have determined his physical and psychological state in the light of prejudices peculiar to the turn of the century. An anarchist was perceived in bourgeois society as a recipient of evil, fears and superstitions, up to the point of turning the word "anarchist" into a serious insult. In parallel, the anarchist was idealized and elevated in the light of physical and moral models taken from naturalistic, mythological and Judeo-Christian tendencies, as well as national cultural traditions. By this time anarchism had penetrated into all social strata: nobles, aristocrats, bourgeois, workers, peasants, students, religious figures, militias and criminals, as well as men and women of various sexual, spiritual and nutritional orientations had representatives of anarchism in their ranks. The heterogeneous human composition of anarchist movements complicated the forms of their own social representations. Violent acts of anarchist figures against an unjust society turned an anarchist into an irrational, degenerate, disgusting being and, at the same time, into a hero, martyr and saint. This dual state is evidenced by a fragment of the text "Anarchist" by Pedro Zanardo in the periodical El Peludo:

""Anarchist!” He was yelling at me like it was an insult... An anarchist! The Apostle, a modern Nazarene... never be afraid of this crowd that insults you, feel sorry for it... Soon they will leave their lives of parasites on that not-too-distant day when the sun of human redemption will shine with dazzling rays... Then they won't say “Anarchist!”as a mockery; they will shout with all the force of their lungs: “Anarchist! You are the forerunner of this world. An anarchist! You are the only and great apostle"" ^{[13, Vol. 2, No. 63, p. 5]}.

Illustration 1. Auguste Rubius. If the vile bandits are immersed in crime from evening to morning. "L'Assiette au beurre" No. 21 of January 1905, p. 3297. BnF, Gallica RES G-Z-337.

The negative interpretation of the anarchist leads to their perception as marginal figures with a certain "shining" revolutionary potential. An example of this is the subculture of "Paris-Apache"^{[1][21, p. 140]}. In the popular French worldview, the "Apache" was characterized as a rude person who knows how to rob and kill, as well as an anarchist or a worker, in particular, of foreign origin^[2]. The satirical story "Anarchist Apache", published in the pseudo-liberal newspaper Star in 1912, introduces us to "Joseph The Tiger" ["Joseph The Tiger"], whose vicious life becomes meaningful after meeting with "M. Peter the Apostle of Bakunin's theories" ^{[31, Vol. 10495, p. 2]}. Thus, on the basis of "propaganda by action", i.e. terrorism, the Montmartre criminal transforms himself into a "regenerator" and savior of an unjust society, purifying at the same time his own human condition. "The evolution of the Apache has been completed!" we read in the story ^{[31, Vol. 10495, p. 2]}. After his arrest, he is sentenced to the guillotine, before which he shouts "Long live Anarchy!" ^{[31, Vol. 10495, p. 2]}. This phrase is also uttered by anarchist terrorists, such as Ravachol, Sante Caserio and Emile Henri, who faced the same fate ^[5]. The first two fully correspond to the definition of "Apache".

The January 21, 1905 issue of the anarchist magazine L'Assiette au beurre is illustrated by Auguste Rubille ^{[23, No. 199, pp. 3289-3304]}. Among the lithographs, one dedicated to the previous libertarian antihero stands out. In the night scene, a city criminal poses standing, with a noose and a dagger in each hand, next to his victim, whose appearance gives him away as a bourgeois (Fig. 1). This sturdy figure dresses according to her social status: beret, wide trousers, jacket, navy shirt, homemade weapons. Attributes corresponding to the mythologization of the "Apache" are expanded by such publications as the conservative newspaper Le Petit Journal under the numbers: "The Apache is the wound of Paris" ^{[26, No. 883]}, "Manners of the Apache" ^{[26, No. 861]}, "Exploits of the Apache" ^{[26, No. 861]}, "Sacrifice of duty" ^{[26, No. 851]}, "Apaches are having fun" ^{[26, No. 871]} and others. In the lithography of O. Rubiya, the silhouette of a guillotine is seen in the distance, drawn by the rising sun, as a kind of premonition of the future. The stylistic treatment of the scene creates a romantic halo around the unexpected redeemer of the sufferings of the oppressed, contrasting it with the derogatory interpretation of "Apache" in the story of the Star newspaper. This composition contrasts with the following lithograph, where O. Rubiy, using a comparative resource, depicts a grotesque scene: a French soldier poses next to the bleeding body of his victim with African features ^{[23, No. 199, p. 3298]}. The thin, caricatured figure of the military and the inclusion of a desert landscape with a fire hint at a pejorative and accusatory interpretation. Such a visual comparison directs the viewer's thoughts not only to the condemnation of military actions in the French colonies, but also to the idea of atonement for the sin of the violent act of the Apache, even if he retains the negativity of his appearance, reflecting his marginal origin.

The figure of the "Apache" "Joseph Tiger", standing as if halfway between the "ordinary" and "political" criminals, resembles the Russian anarchist Shlioma Asnin. According to D. I. Ivanov, Sh.'s criminal past. Asnina, a regular in prison, is "cleansed" during his presence in the Shlisselburg convict prison between 1910 and 1917, where he was at the same time with the anarcho-communist Herman Sandomirsky and other political prisoners of the third corps, who eventually assimilated him as one of their own ^[2]. Physical description of Sh . Asnin was reduced to the stereotype of an anarchist in Russia at that time, equating to the "Italian robber" of the second half of the XIX century: "A black cloak, a hat, a red shirt and curly vegetation in an open collar" ^{[2, p. 897]}. The influential criminologist Cesare Lombroso in his treatise "Anarchists" (1894) emphasizes tattoos as a sign of an anarchist criminal^[3], after the murder of Sh. Asnin by the troops of the Provisional Government, his immoral tattoos served as "proof of the connection of anarchists with criminals" ^{[2, p. 897]} before the Council, preventing, to a large extent, the transformation of Sh. Asnina turned into a revolutionary martyr. In this case, we are also faced with a kind of "evolution" or political reincarnation of an ordinary criminal.

Illustration 2. Tierk Bottema. The anarchist fear of President Taft. "De Notenkraker" April 25, 1909 p. 2. IISG BG C13/467.

At the turn of the century, pseudoscientific theories and practices on the physical and moral typologization of the "abnormal" ^[4] arise; this is the context in which the political dissident, embodied, in this case, by "apache", is a "unique object of studying human pathology" ^{[31, Vol. 10495, p. 2]}. Just like O. Rubiy, the Dutch artist Tierk Bottema refers to the resource of contrast in the illustration "Anarchist fear of President Taft" (Fig. 2), published in the April 25, 1909 issue of the supplement Notenkraker to the socialist newspaper Volk. The author draws not only the obese and cowardly figure of the American president, but also the image of an anarchist depicted as a maniac, whose exaggerated smile suggests he has some mental disorder. The weapons he carries (two pistols, a knife and dynamite) warn the viewer about his violent and irrational behavior. In the caricature, both figures are clearly distinguished. The first one is made with curved lines in accordance with the idea of the archetype of the bourgeois. The second one is developed on the basis of straight and angular lines that characterize a person in a "short circuit". Nevertheless, the artist applies the same interpretation to the trousers of both heroes, as if it were a hidden comparison between two alienated beings. The artist in his drawing repeats the concept of an anarchist as a criminal-terrorist, adding to his image the specifics of a mental disorder. At the same time, the iconographic features of T. Bottema's painting have their roots in the Dutch context.

Illustration 3. Albert Hahn. Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis. "Zondagsblad van het Volk" September 13, 1903 IISG BG PM1/26-48.

Illustration 4. Albert Khan. Illustration from the "Congres-zang" series. "Zondagsblad van het Volk" April 23, 1905 IISG BG PM1/31-41.

The attributes of the image of the anarchist T. Bottema coincide with the attributes of the archetype of the anarchist portrayed by his compatriot cartoonist Albert Khan. A. Khan conceives a kind of hero: he is an anarchist with a long mustache, dressed in a black raincoat or gabardine and a pointed hat. The appearance of such an archetype resembles some kind of fairy-tale, mystical or religious being, which, in addition to its characteristic unstable behavior, differs in that it sometimes carries a bomb or a knife. The origin of this concept is revealed in the connection between the Christian worldview and anarchist ideology within the framework of the Dutch labor movement. Supporters of this union were called "red priests" (rode dominee) ^[10]. Among the priests and preachers who came into contact with libertarian principles since the late 1870s, the Lutheran Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis (1846-1919) stands out, who joined the labor movement and later severed relations with the church and religious faith, becoming the leader of the Dutch labor movement. A. Hahn was a harsh critic not only of the capitalist Abraham Kuiper, but also F. Domela ^[19], to whose figure he dedicated a number of satirical drawings published in the September 13, 1903 issue of the newspaper Volk ^[20] (Fig. 3). Which, in turn, contributed to the development of a rich iconography of this "red priest", including several of the already mentioned attributes.

A. Khan made a lot of cartoons dedicated to the image of an anarchist. There are gouaches about the congress of the Social Democratic Workers' Party (the Netherlands), published in the appendix of April 23, 1905 to the aforementioned Dutch newspaper (Fig. 4). In them, the artist forms a visual interpretation of the anarchist, which will serve as an iconographic source for T. Bottema's caricature, published four years later in an appendix to the same newspaper. In 1907, the appendix to Volk was called Notenkraker; a publication was published in it, in which A. Khan continues to develop ways of presenting his archetype of the libertarian rebel in the light of various situations and identities, while preserving the basic attributes. An example of this is the issue of July 5, 1908, where the image of an "Anarchist by action" is embodied by the liberal politician Maynard Tydeman, who lights the fuse of a bomb called "slander" ^[11]. A. Khan managed to consolidate, like no other artist, his own archetype of the image of an anarchist, on the basis of which for more than ten years he developed a robust visual case awaiting separate analysis.

"The Red Priest" is the subject of a cartoon by Patrick Krohn entitled "This is how the Prussian police imagine Domela" 1905 (Fig. 5). It highlights two key points: 1) a radical satire about the spiritual and physical condition of a rebel, and 2) an anarchist as a foreigner. Let's focus on the first aspect. F. Domela holds five bombs, two revolvers, he has a crazy look, "electrifying" beards and a cowboy look. Similar elements repeat gestures and attributes used by previous artists. In none of the above cases do we perceive the depicted being as capable of conceiving and launching a socio-political project. In the same row, but in the context of a French novel of the late XIX century, puts the anarchist Caroline Granier, who believes that in the stereotypical image of an anarchist, "all political reflections are evacuated in favor of purely psychological analysis," from which "characters of an unstable nature arise, having poorly structured brains and easily manipulated" ^[18]. The most faithful portrait of such a profile is the head of an anthropomorphic beast, printed in the fifth issue of the 1919 anarchist newspaper Freie Judeng (Fig. 6), accompanied by the following caption: "This is Anarchism (according to the testimony of a cowardly philistine)" ^[15][5]. This grotesque face fully illustrates the physiognomy of an anarchist according to S. Lombroso in the already mentioned treatise.

Illustration 5. Patrick Kron. How the Prussian police imagine Domela. 1905 IISG BG C1/120.

Illustration 6. This is Anarchism (according to the testimony of a cowardly philistine). "Freie Jugend" No. 5 of 1919 p. 1. IISG ZF 63356.

S. Lombroso characterized Ravachol in this way: "In the person of Ravachol, brutality and ferocity first of all catches our eye. Ravachol's physiognomy is highly asymmetrical, the brow ridges are excessively developed, the nose is strongly curved to the right side, the ears are degenerate, placed at different heights, the lower jaw is huge, square and protruding forward", these are features that, according to S. Lombroso, are typical of a "born criminal" ^{[29, pp. 26-27]}. The face of the sixth illustration corresponds to the medical diagnosis of "epilepsy and political hysteria" ^{[29, p. 32]}, which is a kind of mystical hallucination of deep messianic power. This diagnosis joins "insanity", propensity to "indirect suicide", "love of martyrdom", "hyperesthesia", "excessive altruism" ^{[29, pp. 38-70]} and other pathologies common to Ravachol, Caserio, Henri, Santiago Salvador and others, including Russian nihilists "pleasant physiognomy" ^{[29, p. 45]}. In addition, according to S. Lombroso, "jargon" ^{[29, p. 23]} is a key aspect for identifying an anarchist as a criminal^[6], which resembles the linguistic subculture of "Apache", perceived as a sign of intellectual disability. The hysterical-epileptic face of the anarchist was also found in Chile ^[25], Argentina ^[16] and Spain ^[17] and adapted to the anthropological and criminalistic features of these countries.

Illustration 7. Clifford Berryman. What to do with this problem? "The Washington Post" September 18, 1898 National Archives Catalog.

The second aspect of our discussion on P. Krohn's caricature sheds light on the immigrant as an anarchist by antonomasia. According to Richard Hensen, in the decades preceding the First World War, it was customary to attribute anarchist terrorism to outsiders, as well as "foreign influence on naive immigrants" ^{[22, p. 441]}. The terrorist comes from other countries, representing a different, undesirable and exotic creature. Although, as the author shows: "radicalized dissidents emigrated, but immigration did not provoke radical anarchists" ^{[22, p. 449]}, the figure of the immigrant remained closely connected, as it happens today, with conspiratorial actions. Inevitably, we should recall the formation of the stereotype of the "Russian-Jewish revolutionary student" ^{[3, p. 1341]}, who was in Germany at the beginning of the twentieth century.

Yu. V. Frolov believes that three factors played a role in the formation of this stereotype: 1) the alleged "revolutionary potential" of the Jews ^{[3, p. 1341]}, 2) terrorist attacks by nihilist movements of the late XIX century and 3) rebellious agitations between 1905 and 1907 in Russia. This problem was discussed at the Konigsberg trial in 1904, at which Russian students were called "vagabonds and conspirators" [Cit. according to: 3, p. 1340]. Another crucial point that Yu. V. Frolov does not mention is connected with the academic education of M. A. Bakunin in Berlin in the 1840s ^{[7, p. 107]}. As the author himself mentions, such a stereotype was based not so much on solid empirical data on the participation of Russian students in revolutionary groups in Germany, as on a strong emotional, and at the same time biased, reaction. Similarly, The New York Times in the USA expanded the image of an anarchist interpreting it as an immoral foreigner, especially of Italian and Russian origin, relying on armed combat and conspiracies ^{[1, p. 202]}. This anarchist was also characterized by his "mental instability", causing a severe repulsion of the majority of the American people, faithful to conservative principles ^{[1, p. 204]}. In the September 18, 1898 issue of The Washington Post (Fig. 7), we find a visual representation of this archetype, on the basis of which the cartoonist Clifford Berryman depicts the "anarchist threat" spreading continuously throughout the world at the end of the XIX century.

Illustration 8. Rojas. The Law on Residence – Social Protection. "La Obra" No. 4 August 1915, p. 8.

Illustration 9. Makaya. There are Deportees on board. "La Obra" No. 4 August 1915, p. 9.

Following the same path, Boris Vladimirovich German, Simon Radovitsky, Severino Di Giovanni, Kurt Gustav Wilkens, Juana Rocco Buela and others arrived in Argentina at the beginning of the XX century from Russia, Italy, Germany and Spain. All of them, frankly anarchists, were involved in terrorist attacks, assaults or popular rallies in the name of the anarchist cause. They were sentenced to eternal imprisonment, extrajudicial execution or deportation. The latter, as Eduardo Domenech points out, was a response to a number of national laws and treaties on international anti-anarchist cooperation between American and European countries, including imperial and Bolshevik Russia, directed against a "criminal foreigner" ^{[12, p. 185]}, which distorts the legitimacy of power. The drama of the deportation is the theme for the La Obra supplement to the anarchist newspaper La Protesta. Three Argentine artists "Rojas, Onyivera, Makaya" answer the question with their graphic works: "How do you, through your art, represent the proletariat under exclusive laws?" ^{[24, Vol. 1, No. 4, p. 8]} (Figs. 8 and 9). The paintings depict a deported anarchist immigrant. In Rojas' illustration, the hands that are tied behind the back stand out – a sign of state repression, which reappears in the anarchist body in the light of ancient Greek mythology and Christian martyrology on the example of the themes "Prometheus Chained", "Christ at the Column" and "The Martyrdom of St. Sebastian". The Judeo-Christian tradition of the last two suggests associations between the anarchist deportation and the expulsion of Adam and Eve from paradise. The maximum punishment is expulsion from the promised land by the hands of the earthly and heavenly authorities.

The image of an anarchist as an immigrant is repeated in the engraving "Anarchism as a Helmsman" (Fig. 10) (1911) by A. Khan, whose image refers to the pathos of the engraving "Immigrants" (1887) by the Catalan artist Josep Limona. A. Khan draws the above pseudo-mystical character with a pointed hat and a black cloak, deviating from the normal find his small boat in the middle of a calm sea. The sailor accompanying him exclaims: "Stop! You sent us to the cliff!". An anarchist immigrant is a sign of perdition and perversion. In the schedule of the anarchist periodicals of the turn of the century, the immigrant takes the form of a vagrant or a wanderer, as we have already noted regarding the stereotype of a Russian student in Germany at the beginning of the twentieth century. According to Aline Dardela, the immigrant belongs to the same social class of "fugitive, bohemian, saltimbank, beggars and bandits, blind and crippled, street musicians, small traders and peddlers" – heroes represented by the artists of the anarchist periodical Les Temps Nouveaux, in order to denounce "social injustice" ^{[9, p. 31]}. The appearance of these figures is a sign of social discomfort and transgression, the presence of which should be censored and banished.

Illustration 10. Albert Khan. Anarchism as a helmsman. "De Notenkraker" August 26, 1911 IISG BG C4/508.

Indeed, migration flows at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. they contributed to the mythologization of the anarchist as a carrier of chaos and social instability, surrounded by an aura of moral ugliness, which, in the light of emerging forensic theories or extravagant judicial reflections, finds its way out into the world in physical appearance.

In turn, in the French context, the anarchist as a criminal-terrorist was personified by a diverse typology beyond the "Apache": a lazy and disillusioned bourgeois, a brilliant student, but alienated by nihilistic tendencies, a victim of the secularization of the Third Republic and at the same time the fruit of religious or mystical education ^[32]. In addition, he was considered a naive victim of "intellectual influences" ^{[32, p. 529]} of both theory and anarchist periodicals. Naturally, such justifications ignored socio-political motives in the form of a determining factor in the radicalization of figures or supporters of anarchism, deflecting the debate from the obvious reasons related to social inequality ^[18]. On the other hand, the prosecution of "ideological pollution" was ratified in the framework of the Trial of Thirty (1894), in which the intellectual is characterized as a source of anarchist terrorism, which equates "intellectual crimes to criminal acts" ^{[18, p. 532]}. In this context, the arrest, on suspicion of committing a terrorist attack against the Foyot Cafe, of art critic Felix Feneon (Fig. 11), a leading theorist and consolidator of neo–Impressionism in art criticism, stands out. Such an attitude draws our attention to the criminal aura common to the anarchist and the avant-garde artist.

Illustration 11. Photo of Felix Feneon while he was under arrest. 1894

This is evidenced by the report of the neoclassical sculptor Mariano Benliure at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts of San Fernando in 1901, in which he criticizes "anarchic impressionism" ^{[6, p. 12]}: "Those who are called impressionists go to artistic anarchism. The result of their works is the same destructive, chaotic result that the supporters of anarchy, relying not on theories, but on actions, produce in society with their destructive actions… We must put an end to this race of degenerates before they do away with Art" ^{[6, pp. 9-11]}. Moreover, we should recall the words of the socialist politician Pierre Lampouet that Cubists "act in the art world as Apaches act in everyday life" [Cit. according to: 28, p. 108]. In the same sense, the work of the Cubist artist on the example of the painting "The Maidens of Avignon" (1907) by P. Picasso was perceived as a "propaganda attack by action", reminiscent of "bombs of Catalan anarchists" [Cit. according to: 27, p. 89]. Cubism itself was perceived as the aesthetic equivalent of anarchism, that is, as a carrier of perversion and aggression.

As we can conclude, such negative interpretations of the anarchist image have their roots in the so-called era of terrorist attacks in France Fin de Si?cle. The recognition of "propaganda by action and rebellious action" ^{[34, p. 112]} as parallel components of written and oral propaganda within the framework of the International Revolutionary Social Conference in London (1881) is a decisive impulse for the mythologization of the anarchist we are discussing. In the same row in 1880, P. A. Kropotkin caused "a constant uprising through speech, writing, a dagger and a pistol, or dynamite" [Cit. according to: 32, p. 523]. Between 1892 and 1894, the four heroes already mentioned were arrested and executed. The first, Ravachol, threw two bombs in 1892. The second, Auguste Vaillant, bombed the Chamber of Deputies in 1893. The third, Henri, a Franco-Catalan immigrant, was the author of two terrorist attacks, one of which was directed against the cafe Hotel Terminus in 1894. The fourth, Caserio, an Italian immigrant, killed French President Sadi Carnot in 1894 ^[5].

The illustrated supplement to the newspaper Le Petit Journal sheds light on the perception of the above-mentioned events by "counter-revolutionary" eyes. Among the epithets to describe anarchist terrorists are: "the abominable Caserio" ^{[26, Vol. 5, No. 193, p. 247]} and "the murderer of old men and old women, the thief and rapist of graves" ^{[26, Vol. 3, No. 73, p. 127]} regarding Ravachol. In the April 16, 1892 issue of the same newspaper, a color lithograph entitled "Arrest of Ravachol" is published on the cover (Fig. 12). In this image, Henri Meyer draws a group of four people, two of them in police suits, and the other two in pantsuits and hats. They all look at the exalted criminal with a mad look, in whose right hand is a revolver. The brown jacket and hat on Ravachol's floor contrast with the elegant clothes of his captors. His representation resembles the strong bodily structure of the Apache: "the self-confident Ravachol was a Herculean figure; it took a dozen gendarmes to subdue him" ^{[32, p. 525]}.

Illustration 12. Henri Meyer. Ravachol's arrest. "Le Petit Journal" No. 73 of April 16, 1892. Cover. BnF, Gallica.

Clothing as a visual resource that allows creating a social and moral difference between the characters acquires special significance in the woodcut "Anarchist" (1892) by Felix Vallotton (Fig. 13). Just like A. Meyer, F. Vallotton applies a visual interpretation of the photo reportage not only in the previous illustration, but also in other woodcuts on the topic of anarchism, such as "Demonstration" (1893), "Repression" (1893) and "Execution" (1894). Made in the same year of the beheading of Ravachol, this illustration represents his arrest. However, according to Anna Maria Springer, we are talking about the artist's attempt to formulate his own anarchist archetype ^{[33, p. 266]}. This woodcut, whether documentary or subjective, differs from the anarchist's previous ideas discussed in this article. An anarchist is not a monster, his figure is humanized. We are talking about a gentle young man, perhaps a student, who is attacked like animals by four policemen with clawed hands, hats and a corpulent bodily structure. In the middle ground, two more policemen are going to participate in the arrest. In the background, two bourgeois expectantly contemplate the scene taking place.

The anarchist's clothes largely concentrate all the tension of the event. On the one hand, A. Springer mentions "a romantic outfit... a velvet suit, a beautiful vest and a narrow tie", which testifies to the artist's desire not only to humanize the anarchist, but to endow him with ideals incomprehensible to the kidnappers ^{[33, p. 265]}. On the other hand, Robin Roslak draws our attention to the harsh caricature of police authorities by simplifying their figures, in contrast to the detailed depiction of the folds of an anarchist's clothes, which give him volume and thereby ennobles him. At the same time, Vallotton also hints at the negative anarchist archetype in two ways. First, a hand appears in the pocket as a hint of the possible presence of a weapon ready for action. Secondly, the letter "N" of the woodcut signature was made the other way around, like the Russian letter "I", providing a sign of "aberration" ^[30].

Illustration 13. Felix Vallotton. Anarchist. 1892 Cleveland Museum of Art.

In conclusion, we will highlight three main thematic and iconographic directions of the negative interpretation of the anarchist image in graphic art at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. Firstly, an anarchist as a criminal-terrorist, relying on figures of subcultures, on the example of the "Apache" in France and the "red priest" in the Netherlands. Secondly, an anarchist as a mentally ill person, whose typologization in the light of criminology reveals the pathology of irrational behavior that leads to criminal actions and self-sacrifice. Thirdly, an anarchist as an immigrant, whose migration around the world sows chaos and perversion. Naturally, such directions overlap, complement each other, taking different forms on the example of a student, an immigrant, a worker, an intellectual, an art critic, an avant-garde artist, etc. As a result, it should be noted that the image of an anarchist includes not only negative, but also positive archetypes in the light of the themes of ancient Greek mythology, religious motives of the Judeo-Christian episteme, the practice and theory of naturalism, as well as such a domestic tradition as "Gauces mythology" ^[8] in Argentina. This article is an invitation to the discovery of a diverse graphic interpretation of the image of an anarchist at the turn of the XIX–XX centuries, the negative archetypes of which allow us to trace historical precedents when creating the image of a political criminal or "internal enemy", seen through the eyes of representatives of various socio-political doctrines.

^[1] The Apaches were a group of young Parisian criminals who appeared in 1900.^[21]

^[2] This feature reminds us of the very origin of this pejorative term imposed by European invaders on the indigenous nomadic American group of natives.

^[3] Lombroso quotes testimonies about figures of anarchist groups in London in 1888: "On the outside of the brush, many had hearts, dead heads, crossbones, anchors and various patterns depicted" ^{[29, p. 23]}.

^[4] This should be recalled the influence of the connection of the "moral" and "political" monsters of the late XVIII century on the discussion, in the second half of the XIX century, on the "ordinary criminal" and "anarchist" as monsters ^{[14, p. 97]}.

^[5] Signature under the translation by Alina Zalyaeva.

^[6] Lombroso illustrates this point with the example of the jargon of the anarchist periodicals Le P?re Peinard.