Prospects for the development of the Arctic through consideration of the sociopolitical role of the indigenous peoples in Canada

Katamadze Aleksandr ORCID: 0000-0002-4059-4179 Master's Degree, the department of Political Science, Université Paris VIII Vincennes-Saint-Denis 93526, Frantsiya, g. Paris, ul. De La Liberté, 2 al.katamadze@yandex.ru

Canada is an Arctic state, the autochthonous part of whose population is one of the determining factors of the legality of declaring Canada's sovereign rights in this region ^[1]. Currently, indigenous peoples are political actors who systematically exert targeted influence both on Canada's foreign policy towards the Arctic and on decision-making within international Arctic forums and organizations, where their representatives have the appropriate authority to represent and defend their interests at the regional and global levels. It should be noted that Canada's domestic policy towards Northerners directly affects their activities in the course of the work of international institutions, predetermining the purpose of this study in considering the status of indigenous peoples in Canada's modern Arctic policy.

The following methodological basis is used in the work: a retrospective method (the study of the process of political registration of the indigenous peoples of Canada as actors at the regional and global level), a comparative method (previous and current state documents on Canada's strategy in the Arctic are compared), an institutional method (in the course of the study, an assessment and definition of the activities of such political structures as the Arctic Council is put forward and NATO within the framework of the development of the Arctic and its indigenous population), a normative-value approach (the advantages and disadvantages of the functioning of the existing system of recognition and realization of political rights and freedoms of autochthons are revealed), a systematic method (indigenous peoples are considered as a separate system that directly affects and carries out its activities in the Arctic in the interests of solving the following Arctic problems: environmental issues, protection of sovereignty, development of infrastructure potential, social development of the region, etc.).

History of indigenous peoples' participation in international organizations

The involvement of representatives of indigenous peoples in the management of this region at the international level occurred only at the end of the XX century. after the creation of the Arctic Council. According to the Ottawa Declaration of 1996, eight Arctic States considered it expedient to involve six permanent participants from among indigenous peoples (Inuit, Gwich'in, Athabaskan, etc.) in order to work out issues and implement Arctic tasks together with those who will be primarily affected by any decisions taken ^[2].

The representation of indigenous peoples in the Arctic Council is the basis on which the results of previously adopted plans and projects can be traced. With the help of this platform, the Northerners can convey the information that requires attention to the authorized delegates from the member States, which will contribute to more effective decision-making in the future within the framework of meetings of this discussion platform for international cooperation in the region.

In particular, considering the role of Inuit as the most numerous representatives of the autochthonous population of Canada, the following quote can be cited: "The inextricable link between issues of sovereignty and sovereign rights in the Arctic and Inuit self-determination and other rights requires States to recognize the presence and role of Inuit as partners in conducting international relations in the Arctic" ^[3]. Thanks to the involvement of the indigenous population in the process of organizing events to promote cooperation in the field of environmental protection, as well as to ensure the socio-technological development of the Arctic, both the member countries and the local population make a more practical contribution to the process of stimulating the further formation of the Arctic as a multifunctional region with equal opportunities for its inhabitants, without differing in the quality of life of the population from other provinces of Canada.

It should be emphasized that the rights and freedoms of the indigenous people of Canada are spelled out in the Constitution (1982) ^[4]. The basic law of the state, which came into force, has permanently severed the last constitutional and legislative ties between Great Britain and Canada. However, while maintaining membership in the British Commonwealth of Nations, the status of the autochthonous population has acquired a new meaning. From now on, indigenous peoples are not just part of the confederation, but appear as its partners, simultaneously recognizing their right to self-government and conducting legislative processes on their territory.

It can be argued that every year the consideration of the problems of the indigenous peoples of Canada is given more importance in the course of solving issues related to the search for ways to constructively modify the Arctic. Accordingly, many different official documents over a long period of time declare the need for the development of this region not only from the point of view of more efficient use of non-renewable resources, but also from the position of transforming the social sphere of society. The following documents were the basis of the above, or have a decisive role at the moment: "The concept of the North: North Strong and Progressive Canada" (2007) ^[5], "Northern strategy Canada: our North, our heritage, our future" (2009) ^[6], "the Foundations of canadian policy in the Arctic and the North" (2019) ^[7].

Most of the goals and objectives related to the development of the Canadian North described in the above documents do not change even over time, remaining on the agenda for decades. The main ones can be identified: support for indigenous communities, solving the issue of employment of Northerners, development of social services, affordable education, empowerment of the peoples of the North, resolving land claims, involving indigenous representatives in public administration and security.

After more than 10 years, with the change of several official documents focusing on the development of the Arctic and the North in general, as well as, in particular, the implementation of a policy of civic motivation in the participation of representatives of indigenous peoples in the administrative life of Canada, we can state the following: these problems have not yet been solved and in some aspects have mixed results. You should familiarize yourself with the implementation of government orders in more detail.

Implementation of the Government's social policy in relation to the autochthonous population

Of particular interest is the analysis of the direct participation of the Canadian Government in the settlement of possible emergencies associated with the risk to the life and health of the indigenous population of the country. In this regard, the activities of the health care system should be cited as an example. In order to take productive measures to contain the COVID-19 epidemic, a "Fund for Support of indigenous Communities" was created, which was allocated a total of more than $1 billion in 2020 to provide an emergency response to prevent the spread of the virus, as well as to protect vulnerable members of autochthonous associations ^[8]. Consequently, it can be established that, regardless of the current sparsely populated Canadian Arctic, the government is taking measures regulating the long-term financing of national projects that guarantee the effective functioning of preventive medicine in order to ensure a high quality of life for the population not only at the moment, but also in the future.

Accordingly, it would be appropriate to refer to statistical demographic indicators. The indigenous peoples of Canada make up ~ 5% of its total population, that is, more than 1.5 million people ^[9]. However, only a relatively small part of citizens live in this region on a permanent basis due to severe natural conditions (~ 150 thousand people). In this connection, the Canadian Government actively promotes the preservation and development of the language and culture of the peoples originally living in this area, simultaneously including their representatives in various political organizations to respect the rights and freedoms of the indigenous population of Canada, such as the Council of First Nations ^[10], the Federation of Sovereign Indigenous Peoples ^[11], etc. On the contrary, the state's policy is aimed at improving the demographic situation of the Arctic region, and not at the migration of its population, since the aforementioned factor negatively affects the implementation of programs of national importance in the field of sustainable development of the state.

It is necessary to turn to more detailed aspects of the social reality of the indigenous population of Canada in order to identify features that subsequently affect the adoption of certain decisions by international Arctic communities. According to the data of the Government of Canada in the period from 2006 to 2016, the employment rate among the indigenous peoples of Canada (from 25 to 54 years) decreased ^[12]. Through social research, it was possible to determine that it is harder for Northerners to get a job mainly due to the lack of the required level of education for a particular type of activity, as well as based on certain kinds of manifestations of discrimination or racism ^[13] based on myths and misconceptions about the indigenous population by non-indigenous peoples ^[14].

The next important aspect is a more detailed study of the Inuit life as one of the most widespread representatives of indigenous communities in Canada. It would be appropriate to emphasize the signing of the declaration on the establishment of the Inuit Population Partnership Committee with the Government of Canada ^[15], which promotes direct dialogue between the two sides on issues of qualitative transformations of the Arctic space, as well as consideration of issues to improve the quality of life of Inuit. In total, ~ 64 thousand Inuit live in Canada, consisting of 53 communities throughout the northern part of Canada.

The average age of the Inuit is 24 years. The Government of Canada is implementing a number of programs and initiatives aimed at helping young Inuit to participate fully in the Canadian economy.

An example of the activities of the above-mentioned committee is the development of a "Strategy for the employment of indigenous and Inuit youth" ^[16], which supports various initiatives that provide indigenous peoples with the opportunity to gain work experience and career growth.

However, there are certain areas of social life in which the Government of Canada does not have a proper action plan to combat particularly acute problems of the indigenous population. In this regard, the lack of food security among indigenous households should be noted. In 2019, 48% of them did not have a stable income to cover the costs of purchasing essential goods ^[17]. One of the main problems is the transportation of food due to the limited availability of the northern territories, to provide food for which it is required to travel several thousand kilometers, which significantly increases the cost, quality, as well as the timeliness of delivery.

In the field of education, it is necessary to emphasize an unusual gap in the system of university education of Northerners. Canada is the only circumpolar country that does not have a university in the Arctic, or rather in such territories as Yukon, Nunavut, and the Northwest Territories ^[18]. At the same time, support for primary and secondary education has clearly expressed grounds, based on many different government programs that support indigenous peoples, including research and training programs such as the "Primary and secondary education program" ^[19]. For example, in 2016-2017, $1.94 billion was invested in all programs related to the initial education of children ^[20], "A special education program involving high costs" ^[21] (According to the 2016 budget, investments in the amount of $577.5 million were made. for the next 5 years), "Innovations in the educational program" ^[22] (A project that finances initiatives to improve the quality of life of indigenous peoples).

Based on all of the above, it can be assumed that the implementation of Canada's social policy at the present stage is of a dual nature, since serious shortcomings remain that affect the quality of life of the indigenous population. At the same time, it is worth noting the development of various programs that have a creative effect on the lifestyle of Northerners.

The issue of recognition of the political rights of indigenous peoples by the Government of Canada

In this regard, it will be important to emphasize the innovations of the current Canadian Northern strategy regarding the empowerment of indigenous peoples and their ability to hold high-ranking positions in the public administration of Canada. However, it is necessary to mention the events preceding this fact. Earlier, during the chairmanship of the leader of the Conservative Party of Canada Stephen Harper as Prime Minister of Canada (2006-2015), unambiguous decisions were taken in relation to the autochthonous Canadian population.

A clear example is the refusal to ratify the UN Declaration on the Rights of indigenous peoples in Canada, where 144 countries were in favor, and the following 4 states were against: the USA, New Zealand, Canada and Australia. Article 26 of the UN Declaration noted the following: "Indigenous peoples have the right to lands, territories and resources that they have traditionally owned, occupied or otherwise used or acquired" ^[23]. The aforementioned declaration was determined "as incompatible with the Constitution" by the Minister of Indian Affairs Chuck Strahl ^[24].

It should also be added that the federal government, without the consent of indigenous communities, supported by the Federal Appeals Court, spent $4.5 billion on the purchase of the Trans Mountain pipeline, which is not an isolated case of such activity on the part of the supreme administration ^[25]. Most of Canada's major infrastructure projects directly affect the quality of life of the indigenous population, which often results in mass protests and lawsuits.

The main and, presumably, the only transformation of Canadian policy regarding the acquisition of high-ranking positions by representatives of indigenous peoples was the appointment of Leona Aglukkak, the first Inuk, to the post of Minister of Health of Canada (2008-2013), then Minister of Environment of Canada (2013-2015), simultaneously serving as chairman of the Arctic Council ^[26].

When considering the implementation of the settlement of land claims by the indigenous peoples of the North, you should refer to the official document published by the Ministry of Indian Affairs and Development of the Northern Territories: "Settlement of Aboriginal claims: a practical guide to the Canadian experience" ^[27], in which lawsuits by indigenous representatives are divided into 3 categories of land claims:  comprehensive processing of land claims, special complaints and other claims. A clear differentiation of complaints allows for a more comprehensive and prompt response to outgoing claims of the indigenous population.

Due to the subtly elaborated procedures, which often resolve issues of extreme importance, to resolve contradictions between historical injustice on the one hand (on the part of indigenous peoples) and the aspirations of the Government on the other, it can be argued that this is at least a fundamental step towards the rapprochement of the indigenous peoples of the North and representatives of "modern" Canada. Moreover, this document was also published to share experiences with other countries of the world that have similar difficulties on this issue.

Thus, it can be argued that at present representatives of indigenous peoples have specific difficulties in exercising their political rights and freedoms. Moreover, it is necessary to emphasize the particular degree of inequality between the indigenous and non-indigenous population of Canada in the political sphere of society. The existing disagreements arise due to the divergence of interests of the Government and indigenous peoples in relation to the issue of ownership of territories, as well as the conduct of industrial activities of the State. It can be assumed that the critically low number of indigenous delegates in government structures is due to the government's need for direct regulation of all issues related to the promotion of industrialization of the Arctic region. Accordingly, the autochthonous population retains the opportunity to defend their interests only from the outside through the work of international forums and organizations, as well as through mass demonstrations.

Participation of representatives of the indigenous population of Canada in ensuring sovereignty in the Arctic 

The centuries-old history of the Canadian North and its human dimension are the basis of a solid foundation for the idea of the people's sovereignty of Canada, the implementation and protection of which is a fundamental factor in the development of Canada as a State, as well as support for its socio-economic potential through a wide range of actions taken by the Government. These include ensuring the security of the Arctic through the expanded presence of the Canadian armed forces and the use of specialized military equipment, both in polar waters and in the northern territorial possessions.

It should be emphasized that back in 2006, the Standing Committee on National Security and Defense in one of its interim reports noted the use of the military component in the Arctic as an inappropriate scenario. The following was announced: "The best way for Canada to maintain a presence in the Arctic is not to send large groups of military personnel there; but to send icebreakers on a permanent basis to perform practical tasks. The Canadian icebreaking fleet, which is in desperate need of modernization, is in the hands of the Canadian Coast Guard, not the Canadian Navy. The management of these icebreakers also belongs to the Coast Guard, and forcing the Navy to re–acquire these powers and acquire a fleet of icebreakers will reduce its potential and ability to perform other military duties" ^[28]. Consequently, the inexpediency of the presence of the Canadian military contingent in this region was recognized, and a special division of powers between the aforementioned type of troops and the federal agency was also noted, which prevented the unanimous management of actions in Arctic waters.

However, in 2008, in the official document on Canada's defense strategy, we see fundamental changes regarding the use of armed forces in the Arctic: "... the Canadian armed forces should be able to exercise control and protect Canada's sovereignty in the Arctic.  New opportunities are emerging in the region, leading to new problems.  As activity in the northern lands and waters accelerates, the military will play an increasingly vital role in demonstrating Canada's visible presence in this potentially resource-rich region ..."^[29]. From this moment on, we can talk about the beginning of the appearance of numerous statements from the top officials of the state about the need for the presence of a military contingent in the Arctic region.

One of the leading roles in protecting Canada's sovereignty in the Arctic is occupied by Canadian rangers. A specialized formation of the Canadian Armed forces, not related to the regular Canadian forces, mainly consisting of representatives of the indigenous peoples of the North. The numerical composition varies within ~ 2 thousand people . The activity is aimed at maintaining Canada's permanent military presence in the region through participation in patrol and surveillance operations in the Arctic ^[30]. Over the years, their importance has only increased, which can be traced to the new Canadian defense policy, which came into force in 2017 ^[31].

Of course, it is worth paying attention to the wide popularization of the aforementioned formation by the Government of Canada. The largest annual youth programs designed for young men aged 12 to 18 years are funded. This method is used to attract young people to the Canadian Armed forces through various events that introduce the activities of Canadian servicemen, while at the same time improving the image of rangers among potential recruits. 

Regarding the use of modern technological capabilities, it should be noted that measures have been taken to expand the joint intelligence and surveillance potential – all network platforms will be integrated into a common system associated with space-based surveillance facilities, with the help of which it will be possible to track incoming data in real time in order to implement even greater efficiency during operations. In this connection, the priority of defense research was identified to develop innovative solutions for monitoring in the North of Canada.

The severity of weather conditions also influenced the introduction of innovative solutions for equipping troops with modern samples of special military equipment. Vehicles optimized for use in Arctic conditions were purchased. The movement of the armed forces without appropriate equipment complicated the performance of assigned tasks. The main goal in this regard was to improve the mobility of military personnel to cover the northernmost territories of Canada.

Moreover, in the interests of increasing Canada's military presence in the Arctic, Nanook operations have been conducted annually since 2007. Multifunctional exercises in Arctic conditions designed to test the capabilities of the Canadian armed forces to protect the sovereignty of the country within national borders. It should be mentioned that the military contingent sent to the above-mentioned exercises, for the most part, consists of the indigenous population, which is more adapted to combat operations in harsh climatic conditions.

Of no small importance is Canada's assistance on the issue of NATO countries' participation in the above-mentioned exercises. Previously, Canada conducted combat training operations in the Arctic on an independent basis. However, a few years ago it was decided to develop and coordinate common procedures between such interested countries as the USA, Denmark, etc. This fact indicates that Canada is purposefully promoting partners in the Arctic within the framework of the North Atlantic Alliance, justifying this by the need for support in solving Arctic problems and implementing the necessary information exchange.

In turn, it is advisable to analyze a thematically related document: "Fundamentals of Arctic and Northern Policy: Protection, security and defense" ^[32], where it can be traced that there are no specifically designated measures to strengthen the defense of the state. A specific role is assigned The Canadian Coast Guard, taking into account the fact that it is a government maritime organization without naval or law enforcement duties, the statement that the Canadian Coast Guard stands "in opposition to threats to maritime security and the Arctic environment" raises a number of doubts. However, it should be noted that this government structure has acquired 3 temporary icebreakers that will be fully commissioned by the end of 2021, which will certainly contribute to maritime navigation in the Arctic. 

As a result, it can be concluded that Canada intends to increase its military potential in the Arctic at an accelerated pace by organizing frequent military exercises on the territory of the state, without neglecting the support of NATO member countries, while at the same time contributing to their involvement in the activities of the Arctic states. It is essential to consolidate the role of indigenous peoples as the military-forming basis of Canada's Arctic security, since the overwhelming majority of military personnel in the Arctic are representatives of the autochthonous population. 

General conclusion

Thus, it can be concluded that for several decades there have been everyday difficulties regarding the expansion of the construction of the necessary infrastructure to ensure a decent life for Northerners; the level of employment of the indigenous population among certain groups has remained unchanged or decreased, which indicates untenable measures to resolve this issue on the part of the Government of Canada; the fragmentary existing field of education of the autochthonous population, directly affecting the previous feature due to the physical lack of opportunities to acquire higher education, while primary and secondary education is the alpha and omega of the enlightenment of Northerners; a relatively difficult situation in relation to the possibility of being elected to the highest circles of public administration of the country in relation to the rest of the population; numerous politically organized procedures that run counter to with the rights and freedoms of the indigenous population; low level of food security. At the same time with all of the above, we can note the constructive measures taken to prevent the spread of the virus, which emphasizes the special position of the Northerners in the health sector; a comprehensive program to resolve contradictions regarding land ownership issues, as well as the creation of a variety of programs that contribute to the employment of indigenous people in the Canadian labor market. Based on the above, it is necessary to recognize only the partial implementation of national projects in relation to the Northerners, as well as to identify the relative technological lag of the state, which determines the emergence of problems in the field of sustainable development of the Canadian Arctic and its indigenous population. In the field of Arctic security, it can be concluded that Canada is moving towards the militarization of the Arctic, promoting initiatives to expand the military contingent in this region. The thesis put forward that the armed forces need to be increased in number and deployed in the Canadian Arctic in peacetime to prevent and immediately eliminate emergencies is proof of this. It seems necessary to identify the role of Canadian rangers as a central link in the defense of the sovereignty of the Arctic, where representatives of the indigenous population form the dominant basis. Moreover, regular military exercises give reason to believe that Canadian national interests are not limited to the current spheres of influence in the Arctic. It should also be recognized that Canada contributes to the promotion of non-Arctic NATO member states in the Arctic zone, which will significantly affect future decisions in the field of regional development and cooperation.