The myth of the "humanity" of non-lethal weapons

1. IntroductionAn analysis of the practice and theory of military confrontation of recent times shows that non-forceful methods of influence play an increasingly important role in solving interstate conflicts.

And although the final stage in resolving the conflict is now, as a rule, a military operation, the methods of conducting military operations are still changing. As part of the "humanization" of military operations, the issue of the use of non-lethal weapons as an alternative to conventional weapons, the use of which leads to excessive casualties and destruction, especially during local wars and armed conflicts, has been periodically raised recently. In this context, we are talking about combat types of non-lethal weapons, and not about police weapons or civilian means of self-defense. And, in a number of works by foreign military specialists, this non-lethal weapon is often presented literally as a panacea that can significantly reduce the level of bloodshed in the LViVK. However, an analysis of the course of modern LViVK allows us to draw another conclusion – the use of non-lethal weapons is justified, in most cases, not by concern for reducing the number of victims of the conflict, but by the complexity of defeating the enemy in urban development and mountainous and wooded areas, where the vast majority of modern conflicts are conducted.  And indiscriminate non-lethal weapons are used more successfully in such conditions, including according to the criterion of "efficiency-cost".

The confirmation and relevance of this thesis are provided by two aspects:

· firstly, there are currently no official statistics on the impact of exposure to various types of non-lethal weapons on the human body;

· secondly, the very thesis of the "humane" orientation of the creation of non-lethal weapons that do not belong to the class of "police" and "civilian" self-defense weapons is questionable.

Based on this, the study of the true causes and consequences of the use of non-lethal weapons in modern local wars and armed conflicts is timely and relevant.

2. Analysis of the history of the issue. Examples of the use of non-lethal weapons operating on the basis of an electromagnetic pulseIn order to understand the features and consequences of the use of non-lethal weapons, it is proposed to analyze the practice of using some of its types used during the recent LViVK.

It is known from open sources that electromagnetic, acoustic and microwave weapons were widely used in operations "Allied Force" (Operation Allied Force) in Yugoslavia, "Shock and Awe" (Shock and Awe) in Iraq and "Anaconda" (Operation Anaconda) in Afghanistan.

Fig.1. The principle of operation of the electromagnetic bomb. Drawing from the website DefenseTech.org

So, in the operation "Shock and Awe" conducted by the US Armed Forces in Iraq, the use of electromagnetic bombs (e-bomb) was noted. On March 25, 2003 (the fifth day after the start of hostilities), the US Air Force dropped exactly such ammunition on the Iraqi Ministry of Information. The strike paralyzed the activities of Iraqi television for several hours ^[1]. Subsequently, the United States repeatedly used similar ammunition in Baghdad and other cities of Iraq. Electromagnetic bombs belong to the category of weapons based on new principles of action. Due to a powerful electromagnetic pulse, such weapons can disable communication and control equipment, including electronics of all types of weapons (primarily anti-aircraft missile systems (SAMs) of air defense and radar stations (radars)), without causing human casualties and without destroying infrastructure.

Unlike electronic suppression equipment, electromagnetic weapons are capable of disabling electronic elements by directed local action and even when the enemy's equipment is turned off. The damage is similar to a lightning strike, the radius of the electromagnetic bomb is about 200 meters ^[1]. The United States, as noted earlier, used such weapons during the first Iraqi campaign, during Operation Desert Storm, as well as in 1999 against Serbia. But in Operation Enduring Freedom, the power of such bombs and their number have increased significantly.

An analysis of the purpose and characteristics of the e-bomb shows that the need for its use is determined not by the concern and preservation of the life of the SAM calculations, but by typically utilitarian considerations. In order to destroy an earth-type SAM radar located in a shelter, it is necessary to ensure the accuracy of detonating ammunition 5-7 meters from a given aiming point. An electromagnetic bomb can hit the radar with a miss of over a hundred meters. Thus, the calculation is made, most likely, to increase the efficiency of performing defeat tasks, and not on humane considerations.

 Probably, in the future, given the active robotization of the battlefield, the need for the use of electromagnetic weapons will only increase. Indeed, it is much more effective not to physically destroy each unmanned enemy vehicle separately, but to disable them in a given area by non-directional impact on electronic equipment.

Fig.2. The general principle of operation of the "graphite" bomb

Another type of non-lethal weapon, the so-called "graphite" bombs, is the BLU-114/B aviation cluster munition, which is equipped with both unguided and guided aviation cassettes. BLU-114/B is a 200?70 mm cylinder equipped with coils with conductive threads made of carbon-based composite material, a bouncing charge and a parachute. After opening the cassette, the BLU-114/B elements disperse over the switching and distribution facilities of the power supply systems and after the firing of the knockout charges, the coils are ejected from which the conductive threads are unwound (Figure 2). Numerous fragments of such threads, when they hit the current-carrying elements of power supply facilities, cause multiple short circuits of the network. If such objects turn out to be high-voltage devices, then short circuits can lead to the formation of an electric arc, causing significant damage to equipment and fires ^[2]. The first use of these munitions was noted in 1991 in Iraq, they were equipped with combat units of BGM-109 Tomahawk missiles.

In the future, graphite bombs were actively used by the Air Force and the US Navy and NATO aircraft during the wars in the Persian Gulf and in Yugoslavia. The striking effect of this type of ammunition is to create a cloud over an object with an area of up to 200 square meters of electrically conductive thin fibers. When the fibers come into contact with the current-carrying elements, a short circuit occurs and the electrical circuits are disabled.

  Fig.3 Fragments of the BLU-114/B submunition used by the NATO grouping in Yugoslavia. Photos from the website DefenseTech.org

As for the assessment of damage, as practice has shown, after the use of such ammunition on one of the sections of the electric circuits, the damage begins to increase avalanche-like. During a massive shutdown of substations, the generators remain unloaded, and if the disconnecting automation does not work, the generators are physically destroyed with the scattering of debris, after which it takes at least a day to turn them on to the power system. The consequences of the shutdown are observed in the power system for another four days.

That is, the damaging effect of the destruction of power plants by non-lethal weapons in many cases is comparable to the defeat of conventional ammunition with all the ensuing consequences. But that's not all. When electric networks are damaged, secondary damaging factors arise that affect mainly the civilian population in the form of the termination of the functioning of life support systems. These factors can form a humanitarian catastrophe situation, which is one of the components of the concept of warfare in urbanized areas of the US Armed Forces (the concept of "controlled chaos"). When electricity and water are cut off, a large city turns into a trap for its own residents, capable of killing thousands of people.

Based on this, it can be concluded that the main purpose of using "graphite" bombs is not to care about saving the lives of civilians, but to increase the efficiency of damaging power lines, disabling protected switching and generating elements of electrical networks without destroying buildings and structures. That is, concern for ensuring the safety of material values, which has nothing to do with the humanization of armed conflicts.

3. Examples of the use of acoustic weaponsIn recent years, a wide range of work in the field of acoustic weapons has been carried out in the USA and other foreign countries.

It is known, for example, that such work is being carried out at the Center for Research, Development and Maintenance of Armaments of the Army (ARDEC) at the Pakatinni Arsenal (New Jersey) ^[3]. A number of projects to create devices that form non-diffracting acoustic "bullets" emitted by large-diameter antennas were carried out by the Association for Scientific Research (SARA) in Huntington Beach (California).

According to the creators of this weapon, it should expand the possible range of use of military force not only on the battlefield, but also in a number of situations that may arise during peacekeeping operations. Research is underway to create infrasound systems based on the use of large loudspeakers and promising high-power amplifiers that require the development of effective cooling measures and new materials. The joint work of SARA and ARDEC is aimed at creating high-power and low-frequency acoustic weapons to protect American institutions abroad.

In the UK, infrasound emitters have been developed that affect the human hearing aid and cause resonance of internal organs, disrupting the work of the heart, up to a fatal outcome. This weapon was used by England during the fight against riots in Northern Ireland. Infrasound sources based on the nonlinear superposition of two ultrasonic beams have also been tested there for similar purposes.

For the use of acoustic weapons against troops directly on the battlefield, sources of adjustable low frequency were tested, causing blurring of vision, spasms of internal organs, up to a lethal outcome. Acoustic emitters of high power and low frequency have also been designed to control the crowd, create sound "barriers" on the perimeters of objects, prohibit access by outsiders to them in order to ensure reliable protection of American institutions (such as embassies) abroad.

To defeat the personnel of the enemy troops located in bunkers and on combat vehicles, acoustic "bullets" of ultra-low frequencies were tested, formed when ultrasonic vibrations emitted by large antennas were superimposed. According to American experts in the field of non-lethal weapons J. and S. Morris, Russia has also obtained quite impressive results in the creation of such weapons. They, in particular, stated that they were shown an operating device forming an infrasound pulse with a frequency of 10 Hz, "the size of a baseball", the power of which was allegedly sufficient to inflict a severe injury to a person, up to a fatal outcome, at distances of hundreds of meters.

Considering possible sources of strong sound emissions, experts point to the use of loudspeakers connected to amplifiers based on generators or powerful batteries. At the same time, to obtain high values of sound pressure in the open air, a fairly large number of loudspeakers will be required, and the typical electrical power supplied to each of them is measured in hundreds of watts, of which only a few percent are converted into acoustic power due to inconsistency of the membrane and airspace impedances. In the event that a strong noise is required, it can be created by using a siren or whistle for this purpose.

The principle of operation of the siren is that the air flow is modulated in this device by alternately opening and closing the holes. As an example of such a siren, the system of a mobile acoustic source (SMAI), designed at the National Center for Physical Acoustics of the University of Mississippi for the US Army research Laboratory, is cited. An exponential horn with a length of 17 m and a diameter of 2.3 m was installed on it, which can produce up to 20 kW of acoustic power ^[2].

The main task of SMAI is to conduct tests on the passage of sound in the atmosphere over long distances. In the course of further work, it is possible to expect the creation of powerful low-frequency sound sources by using effective resonators, directional horns and high values of energy sources. Preliminary estimates of such devices suggest that the linear dimensions of such an emitter, taking into account additional equipment, will be on the order of one meter or more, and the mass will be measured in hundreds of kilograms. This means that all such sound sources will be either stationary or based on helicopters, armored vehicles or trucks. At the same time, their range will be significantly less than the range of conventional firepower, which makes them vulnerable in combat.

As part of such work, non-lethal acoustic weapons are currently being developed for installation on a helicopter with an adjustable frequency ranging from 100 Hz to 10 kHz with a range of up to 2 km. In the future, it is planned to increase the range to 10 km. Such a helicopter will be equipped with a siren powered by an internal combustion engine with high infrasound power, as well as an acoustic beam weapon operating on the basis of a thermoacoustic resonator with a frequency from 20 to 340 Hz. To obtain high-power ultrasound, it is possible to use large vibrating disks made of piezoelectrics. In one of these devices, such a disc with a discrete change in thickness was used, with the help of which sound levels over 160 dB were obtained (with a pain threshold of the human ear of 137 dB). Strong low-frequency vibrations can also be obtained by aerodynamic means by turbulent interaction of the air flow with resonators, which is used in whistles. So, in one of these designs, the air flow from the annular hole falls on a sharp circular edge, inside which there is a cylindrical resonator. With the help of such a whistle, it is possible to obtain a frequency in the range from infrasound to ultrasound, the value of which is determined by the size of the resonator.

Experts point to the possibility of receiving a shock pulse from an explosion. It has been established that when a charge with a capacity of 1 kg of TNT explodes, pain in the ears occurs at a distance of up to 200 m, and death occurs within a few meters, which generally corresponds to traditional conventional weapons. A new type of explosive weapon may appear, based on the creation of a directional shock wave with the distribution of the released energy according to a linear law, as opposed to a spherical one.

Moreover, the possibility of using acoustic effects on manpower by creating a "chain" of explosions of low power, the frequency of which will correspond to infrasound, is not excluded. In this case, the acoustic power can reach megawatts, and the sound level near the source is about 180 dB. For comparison, we indicate that the maximum sound level when fired from a rifle is about 159 dB, and from a cannon - 188 dB.

To date, in practice, during real hostilities, acoustic weapons (a Jericho Tube type emitter) have been used by the Israeli Armed Forces during the fight against Palestinian terrorists in 2003-2005 ^[3].

Acoustic weapons are supposed to be used not only when conducting combat operations on land. There is information that the leadership of the US Navy and ATC (American Technology Corporation), the developer and creator of acoustic means of information-intimidating purpose, have signed a contract that will be valid for a number of coming years. In accordance with this contract, ATC undertakes to supply the fleet with the required number of LRAD 1000 units.

Fig.4 Testing of acoustic weapons in the defense of ships. Photo from DefenseTech.org

The abbreviation stands for LRAD Long Range Acoustic Device, by itself, installing LRAD 1000, like its predecessors, is an acoustic transducer, with the ability to send audio signals tselenapravlenno within the beam with opening the order of 15-30°. When working on a relatively small capacity, clear voice alerts are forwarded it to a distance of about 300 m. At full capacity, about the same distance setting sends repellent sound "tones" with the level of acoustic pressure above the pain threshold. Can be short acoustic pulses transcendent level: 150 dB. The use of such devices on 7 November 2005 helped to prevent the capture of the pirate cruise ship off the coast of Somalia.

However, the motives and the need for the application of acoustic weapons during the military action is clear and this is not a reduction of civilian casualties and loss of enemy troops. The history of Lviv shows how hard it is to destroy prepared defensive works. Difficult to find and hit their extensive network defenders personnel. Application of acoustic weapons reliably solves this problem. Historical analogue of this situation can be found in the application of conventional ammunition and "blanks" when you break through fortified during the Second world war. The shells did not destroy the particularly strong fortifications, but caused a concussion inside of the personnel, making it unable to resist. However, this non-lethal weapons at that time were called, about the limited impact on the human body didn't care.

Considering the influence of acoustic weapons on the human body, it should be noted that it is extremely diverse and his use of potentially generates a wide range of possible consequences. The SARA report for 1996 are some generalized results of the conducted research in this area.

Indicates that the infrasound level 110-130 dB has a negative effect on the gastrointestinal tract, causing pain and nausea, with high levels of anxiety and disorders are achieved with the already minute exposures at levels from 90 to 120 dB at low frequencies (5 Hz to 200 Hz), and severe physical injuries and tissue damage are 140-150 dB. Instant of injury, type of injury from the effects of shock waves occur when sound pressure of approximately 170 dB. At low frequencies of the excited resonances of the internal organs can cause bleeding and cramping, and in the range of medium frequencies (0.5 to 2.5 kHz) resonances in the air cavities of the body will cause jitters, tissue damage and overheating of the internal organs. At high ultrasonic frequencies (from 5 to 30 kHz) can be created until they overheat dangerously high temperatures, burns, tissue dehydration. At higher frequencies or in case of short pulses as a result of cavitation bubbles may appear and microreserve fabrics. The author of the study adds that, in his opinion, some of these claims about the effectiveness of acoustic weapons raise serious doubts this applies in particular to infrasound and audible region.

Confirmation of these findings, the analysis of the characteristics of another species acoustic weapons – systems "Mobile superior deterrent using silent audio" (Mob Excess Deterrent Using Silent Audio - MEDUSA), developed by the Corporation, the Corporation Sierra Nevada ^[4].

At the heart of its actions on the well-known effect: generation of sound in the inner ear of a person in response to the microwave radiation of certain frequencies. This occurs due to the thermal expansion of the tissues around the cochlea, giving them a shock wave that is perceived by a man as sound. Depending on the parameters of the beam, the effect can be annoying, cause nausea and even be disabling. Feel the volume "the trumpet" can be up to shock, despite the fact that the eardrum remains stationary and apply such induced acoustic trauma is impossible. Security MEDUSA for humans, however, remains to be proven. In earlier experiments by other companies and institutions researchers have noted a number of negative effects: headaches and dizziness. And this is considering that power used in the experiments rays were relatively small. What is the physiological effect of the action is much more powerful "silent cry" is still unknown. Some experts believe that at a certain power level can damage the nervous system leading to death ^[4].

4.Other types of non-lethal weapons

The fighting in Iraq allowed the Pentagon to test it on humans and other types of non-lethal weapons. That's where the United States first used the microwave gun, which focused microwave (frequency of 95 GHz) penetrate to a depth of one third of a millimeter. They heat the water contained in the skin cells and the extracellular space, causing a person pain, similar in feel the burn. The weapon does not cause serious injuries, but with the help of a microwave gun combat divisions of the United States were able to control the behavior of people during the riots.

Fig.5 a prototype of a "microwave gun". Photo from DefenseTech.org

 Low-power laser systems are also commonly referred to as non-lethal weapons. So, in 2008, Boeing tested a variant of the AC-130N aircraft, with a laser installation installed on it (Fig.6), developed under the ATL program. The aircraft is designed to support the actions of ground forces, exhausting the enemy (Air Interdiction), protecting troops and conducting operations in urbanized areas.

It is believed that the air-based laser installations developed under this program are designed to have a blinding effect on enemy ground objects without destroying them. The basis of the AS-130N armament is a 12,000-pound (about 3.5 tons) combined high-energy laser module. According to data on past tests of this installation, the optical system focuses the beam of a 1-kilowatt laser into a "spot" with a diameter of several centimeters in the target range ^[5].

Fig.6 An AC-130N aircraft with a laser installation developed according to the ATL program. Photos from the website DefenseTech.org

 Within this spot, the average intensity of the energy flow is more than 200 W/cm2. Such energy, as experiments have shown, allows destroying conventional ammunition, causing a low-energy explosion ^[6].

In 2007, the ATL program overcame two important stages. In June, flight fire tests of the system were conducted using a lower-power laser. At the same time, target search and detection systems were tested using high-resolution raster sensors, as well as targeting and beam control.  It is claimed that conditional targets were hit in each of more than a dozen tests. At the end of July, ground tests of an air-based combat laser were conducted at the Davis Laser Test Center at Kirtland Air Base. The flight test phase of the system began on May 13, 2008. During ground and flight tests, more than 50 successful detonations of training ammunition were carried out ^[1,7,8]. It is not entirely clear how much the "laser attack aircraft" will be all-weather, its combat effectiveness is also unclear. On the other hand, theoretically tactical lasers can be used to "gently" disable enemy manpower – due to blinding ^[1,4]. An example of such a weapon is the PHASR (Personnel halting and stimulation response rifle) system being developed for the US Armed Forces, which is a low-intensity laser that allows temporarily blinding the enemy, disorienting him in space.

However, the safety of such weapons is rather relative, and the possibility of limiting the impact is doubtful. According to doctors, a laser beam of such energy can lead to charring of the retina and irretrievable loss of vision.

In addition to these types, non-lethal weapons are also considered to include such exotic things as: chemicals and bacteria that cause changes in the composition of fuel and lubricants and lead to the failure of equipment, irritating and strong-smelling substances, etc.

In the history of LViVK there are other examples of the use of non-lethal weapons, including indirect action. For example, during the Vietnam War of 1965-73, in order to interrupt the movement along the "Ho Chi Minh trail", the American Air Force bombed the slopes of the foothills, causing landslides to change the flow of mountain rivers and flood the "trail". Planes sprayed reagents (silver iodide) above the clouds, causing precipitation, which led to floods. From 1967 to 1972, 2000 "rain" sorties were carried out. And during the operation "Commando Lava", tons of soap powder were sprayed from airplanes over the "path": when mixed with rainwater, the surface had to turn into slippery mud. All these "non-lethal" impacts resulted in casualties, including among the civilian population. The resulting crop losses exacerbated the suffering of the civilian population.

5. Some conclusionsThe arguments discussed above about the rather conditional safety of non-lethal weapons can probably be extended to all existing types of non-lethal weapons.

Statistics of harm to health as a result of the use of reagents that disable equipment do not currently exist, but doubts about their safety are very justified. But the effectiveness in conditions where it is problematic to use "conventional" weapons is proved by the above examples from the practice of LViVK in recent decades ^[9-18]. And not only against personnel, but also, given the rapid robotization of the battlefield, against robotic systems. Against the latter, both indiscriminate but powerful electronic weapons and low-power laser means with high selective ability are used. Another confirmation of this is the tests of a prototype of the HELMA–P laser system designed to combat drones, which took place in 2021 in the interests of the French Navy. A similar system for disabling optical and infrared sensors of attack drones and barrage ammunition: ODIN (Optical Dazzling Interdictor), developed for the US Navy and has already been installed on three Arleigh Burke destroyers.

In addition to these facts, another important factor is determined by the growing activity of information warfare in recent decades. Since the 60s of the last century, when television was actively developed, the fighting began to be covered in detail in the media. Starting with the Vietnam War, which literally "stepped off the screens into every home" (a living-room war). Currently, with the development of mass communication, recording and dissemination of data, military operations are conducted almost live. Changes in the content of hostilities, including in "hybrid" (proxy) conflicts, contribute to the fact that the information factor is becoming increasingly important ^[19,20]. Taking into account the fact that modern conflicts are increasingly conducted in urbanized areas, the non-destructive effect of non-lethal weapons becomes important in them: when using it, the picture from the battlefield becomes more "photogenic", without blood and destruction. At the same time, as a rule, the security of the warring parties and the civilian population does not increase, there are simply no external manifestations of military influences.

Thus, objectively assessing the characteristics and experience of using non-lethal weapons, the following conclusions can be drawn:

· the so-called "non-lethal" weapons cause significant harm to health, and sometimes lead to the death of people against whom they are used, significant damage is also caused by the side effect of such weapons;

· the purpose of the development and use of non–lethal weapons is not to reduce enemy losses and civilian casualties, but to increase the effectiveness of solving specific defeat tasks, primarily in a complex background-target situation, in urbanized theaters of military operations and in mountainous and wooded areas;

· existing NATO concepts take into account the danger of non–lethal weapons, but recommend actively using them in addition to the "usual" to solve specific tasks of defeating the enemy, primarily when conducting various forms of "hybrid" actions (hybrid warfare, proxy war, "Grey-zone" wars) and actions in the "multi-domain space" (multidomain operation).

This is what serves as the basis for the growth of the share of non-lethal weapons in the defeat of the enemy, since, as the analysis of the features of modern LVIVK shows, they are conducted mainly in extremely difficult background–target conditions, primarily in highly urbanized areas and in mountainous and wooded areas. That is, where the effectiveness of the use of "conventional" weapons is reduced or its use can lead to unacceptably large losses among the civilian population, which is undesirable in the conditions of total informatization of modern conflicts conducted almost live.

ConclusionBased on the above, we can draw an obvious, but far-reaching conclusion: it would be more correct to call this weapon not "non-lethal", but a weapon of selective influence.

According to its characteristics, it is a harmonious addition to high-precision and robotic weapons, providing an expansion of the range of destruction tasks, especially when conducting combat operations in urbanized areas, along with conventional ammunition, remote mining equipment, etc. Which, quite logically, is taken into account in modern concepts and manuals regulating its use in military operations ^[21,22]. And, based on this, it is necessary to change the attitude to these weapons as "police" and "safe", equating army types of non-lethal weapons to conventional weapons with all the ensuing consequences.