Secular etiquette and the "art of liking" in French moralistic literature of the XVII-XVIII centuries.

Secular etiquette and the "art of liking" in French moralistic literature of the XVII-XVIII centuries.

It is no accident that the genesis of French court society has occupied leading European historians and sociologists for the past hundred years. Because at this time, what influenced the formation of modern European culture and entered the European cultural code is being laid. Namely, the phenomenon of a new ideology, which finds its expression not only in a new system of values, behavioral model, etiquette and aesthetics, but is expressed in a different form of life arrangement. Throughout the XVII and XVIII centuries, this model has spread throughout Europe, reaching Russia and, in part, we are still in its sphere of influence.  

 At the same time, it can be noted that, as a rule, well-known moralists who have left a noticeable mark and who act rather as critics of this model have come to the attention of researchers. Such as Blaise Pascal, La Rochefoucauld, Labruyer. In this regard, it seems very important and relevant to expand the factual material by referring to less well-known moralist writers who formulated and conveyed to the general reading public the advanced ideas of their time.

The analysis of these works allows us to answer the question of how and why the formation of a new system of values took place, how the new behavioral model of the court aristocracy and aesthetic views that influenced the literature and art of the XVII and XVIII centuries developed. 

  The first rules of secular etiquette were developed in the XVII century in books that can be more attributed to moralistic literature, since they discuss nobility and courtesy and how these secular qualities are combined with Christian virtues. Is nobility inherent in a person from birth or is it a quality that can be cultivated by entering the circle of noble people. Lengthy discussions about what a noble person is are combined in these books with recommendations on how to behave in society and at court in order to be known as a noble person.

            We are not talking about individual publications, but about the whole flow of literature that swept the book market in the period between 1600-1670, which was noted by contemporaries. So Charles Sorel, in a review of the book market in 1671, notes the popularity of such literature and lists a large number of publications of this kind over the past decades ^[1]. The theme of nobility and the ability to live in the world is becoming so popular that all new books on morality at this time are published under the heading "noble man" or "l'honn?te homme"^[2]. The moralist and writer Nicolas Shorier (1612-1692), who wrote two books "The Feelings of a noble man" and "The Philosophy of a noble Man"^[3] in "Memoirs" recalled that these books had no name and he gave them to the writer and translator Jean Boudoin, who, understanding the demand on this topic, called them that way^[4].

            The explanation for the popularity of this literature can be the process that Norbert Elias called "the transformation of the feudal estate into a court"^[5]. The influx of provincial nobility to the royal court in the first half of the XVII century made books of this kind very relevant, because along with moralistic reasoning, they gave practical advice on how to behave in society and at court.

            In his fundamental work "Secular courtesy and the theory of nobility in France of the XVII century from 1600 to 1660" Maurice Majendie (1884-1944), considering the genesis of the court estate in the first half of the XVII century, introduces the concept of "l'honn?tet?" (nobility) into scientific circulation as a category of the moral and spiritual life of society, transitioning from the heroic Renaissance ideal to the ideal of a gallant man: "A concept is being formed to a greater extent aristocratic and secular, which has not yet passed into didactic literature"^[6].

Jean Menard, developing the theory of Maurice Magendi in the articles "Pascal and the moral problem"^[7], as well as "The noble man and the noble woman in the culture of the XVII century"^[8], emphasizes that the idea of a noble man is formed in opposition to the idea of the heroic, born of the Renaissance.

  The new court ethos, in the presence of constant internal vectors of contradictions between different layers of court society (ancestral aristocracy, nobility of the mantle, small provincial nobility, bourgeoisie), was embedded in the monarchical model and cemented by the ideology of the "noble" and then "gallant" person, which is formulated in this literature.   

            The need for the coexistence of a large number of courtiers in a small space of the court occurred through familiarization with essentially humanistic concepts such as "civilit?", "politesse" and a rationalistic model of thinking - qualities that a noble person embodied. Yesterday's feudal lords, entering the space of the courtyard and secular salons, had to change their behavior patterns. "Competition in court life forces, therefore, to curb the affects in favor of a carefully calculated and carefully calibrated position in the treatment of people in shades"^[9].

            It is difficult to name the exact figures of the provincial nobles surrounded by Louis XIV. Norbert Elias believes that with servants, the king's court numbered about ten thousand people^[10]. According to Mathieu da Vina's approximate calculations, the civil house of King Louis XIV numbered about 1300 people, who changed every three months, and the military house about two to three thousand people, most of whom belonged to the noble estate ^[11].   

            In addition to the small provincial nobility arriving at court, these books were in demand by representatives of the third estate, who get the opportunity to join the elite model through a new concept of nobility. In a word, these books were addressed to those who wanted to penetrate to another level and comprehend the laws of secular behavior.

             In the first editions, it is more about the external manifestation of courtesy. Madame Delembert formulated this principle very precisely: "Courtesy is the most necessary quality in communication. It is the art of using external mannerisms that are not based essentially on anything. Courtesy is a semblance of nobility, it represents a person from the outside as he should be inside"^[12].  Therefore, until the middle of the XVII century, books predominate in which it is explained how to dress, behave with people standing higher and lower in position, how to behave in different life situations. In the future, moralist writers pay more attention to inner qualities, self-control, the art of conversation and education.

            The book by Nicolas Fare (1596?-1646) "A noble man or the art of being liked at court" ^[13], published in 1630, was the first work by a French author in this genre. Nicolas Fare was the secretary of Count D’Arcura and one of the founders of the French Academy.

            In his book, one can see not only the influence, but often direct quotations and formulations of Spanish and Italian predecessors^[14]. Such as Baldassare Castiglione, Baltasar Graciana and Gerolamo Cordano, whose works are not only translated into French at the same time, but have survived several reprints. An example is the book by Jerolam Cardano, which was written in Latin, published in France in 1627 and translated into French in 1652^[15]. At first glance, all these authors have  we see the same message as in the later books of the French moralists - instruction in how to live in the light, to build relationships with the powerful of this world.

            However, before us, there appears a courtier, a courtier who knows how to maneuver deftly and, taking advantage of the opportunity, achieve his goals with the calmness of a philosopher. Apart from the general humanistic values and natural rules of coexistence, all French moralistic literature, starting with Nicolas Fare, creates an absolutely different aesthetic, moral and secular ideal - the ideal of a noble person living in a society in which his best qualities should be revealed. Therefore, the rules of behavior of a successful courtier receive a new content.

            Nicolas Fare asserts the principles of a strong monarchical state and those moral qualities that should be possessed by those who want to succeed at court and be considered noble. The author himself came from a noble class and considered descent from a good family to be the basis for entering the world, but not its only condition. Origin opens the way, otherwise you need to put a lot of effort and time into it. The main means of achieving success are education, diligence in work, communication with worthy people, the desire for fame, the example of predecessors, noble manners, and the ability to behave in the light. The book was reprinted many times both in the XVII century and later and enjoyed great popularity.           

            Behind all the obvious verbosity about nobility as a kind of abstract quality and reasoning about the manner of behavior of a noble person, the red thread is the revolutionary idea for its time that nobility is a personal quality and inherent in a person not from birth. It can be acquired by self-education, compliance with certain rules and norms.    

            Immediately after the book by Nicolas Fare, the Franciscan monk Jacques du Bos (160.- 1664?) publishes the book "The Noble Woman"^[16], which he dedicated to Madame Kambala, the future Duchess d'Aiguillon, Richelieu's niece. This book was most likely written under the influence of an enlightened female elite. The very combination of "l'honn?te femme" ("noble woman") was bold, because at that time the idea of female nobility was different than that of men. The virtues of a woman were considered modesty, purity and humility. Jacques du Bos, on the contrary, writes about absolutely secular feminine qualities. For the first time, he rose above the everyday controversy around a woman and proclaimed her intellectually and morally equal to a man: "they have the same virtues and the same vices"^[17]. Jacques du Bos raised the question of women's education, since the concept of nobility is associated with it: "If we see exceptional qualities in the powerful, then they come more often from their education than from their birth. Also, people of low origin have a generous heart and a brilliant mind"^[18].

            Jacques du Bos was one of the first to pay close attention to the role that women play in secular society and consistently takes a feminist position. In his opinion, only a noble woman can form noble men, this determined the rules of etiquette in relation to women and the rules by which a woman should be guided in order to be considered "noble".

            In 1645, continuing the theme begun, Jacques du Bos published the book "The Heroic Woman. Comparison of heroines with heroes in all their virtues"^[19]. This book was dedicated to the Queen of England and in the introduction the author admires her trip from The Hague with weapons for the royal troops, landing in England, courage and determination. He finally legitimizes the view of a woman not only as a person equal to a man and the educator of noble men, but as a being of the highest order, capable of ennobling rude male morals.         

            The book "Lyceum" by the philosopher and mathematician Pierre Bardin (1595-1635) was also published shortly after the publication of the book by Nicolas Fare, but differs in greater independence of thought. This is an independent erudite study that brings a noble person to the stage, considering different aspects of his life: in society, in the family, in war, in private life. Nobility is understood by the author as spiritual beauty, he combines nobility with the concept of goodness. Following Seneca, he repeats the idea that neither wealth nor nobility are a sign of nobility, because they can be used perniciously^[20].

            Francois de Grenaille (1616-1680) creates a whole series of books that are dedicated to a noble girl^[21], a noble boy^[22], a noble widow ^[23] and a noble marriage^[24]. Nobility is already indisputably regarded by him as a personal quality that can be cultivated. A boy may be noble, but nothing guarantees that in the future a noble boy will become a noble man. At the same time, a man can never become noble if he was not a noble boy in childhood^[25]. Francois de Grenaille draws a style of behavior necessary for secular communication, writes about the intellectual equality of women and men. The code of conduct in the light, according to the author, follows from high spiritual and moral qualities.

            Books about nobility were written not only by professional writers, but also by people who themselves made a career at court and shared their own experiences. An example is the book by Jacques de Calli?re (159?-1662) "The wealth of people of noble origin"^[26], published in 1658.  Jacques de Calli?re came from a small provincial nobility and made a successful military career. Therefore, the book turned out to be practical, with a lot of everyday advice about the customs and traditions of the court, the rules of behavior in the light, devoid of lengthy abstract reasoning. Jacques de Calli?re considers the ideal form of government to be a strong monarchical state, as the most suitable for the noble estate. We have before us the philosophy of the monarchical state, which equalizes subjects in the face of the monarch and admits that nobility may be inherent in people of other classes, moreover, according to the author, the title (existing or acquired) does not change anything in the personal merits of a person ^[27].

            The book about the art of living at court "A new treatise on politeness, which is accepted in France among noble people" was written by Antoine de Courten (1622-1685) in 1671 for a friend of a certain nobleman from the province, who decided to send his son to court and turned to the author for advice ^[28]. This book has been reprinted fourteen times and translated into Dutch, English and German. Antoine de Courtin brings to the reader an ideal noble man who is rational and courteous, manages passions and knows how to please everyone. Reason and will are inherent in Him, and faith is the supreme arbiter. He knows how to behave in society, knows the subtleties of etiquette and shares them with his friend ^[29].

            Antoine de Courtin sums up for France the ability to live in the light. This is partly moralistic Christian literature, however, profoundly secular and worldly penetrates into Christianity. Courtesy and etiquette are interpreted by the author as Christian virtues: to respect one's neighbors means to respect God. The art of liking for the author is, first of all, the art of "bien-?tre" - harmony and balance of internal and external.

            Thus, we see that books on moralistic literature with practical advice on etiquette, published in the first half of the XVII century, literally produce a revolutionary revolution in consciousness, arguing that nobility is not inherited, but a personal quality and justifying the right of the minor nobility and the third estate to climb the hierarchical ladder, morally equalizing it in rights with the ancestral aristocracy: "The new concept of nobility served the supporters of absolutism, among whom were both the elite of society and the plebeians"^[30].      

            The "noble man" became a step or foundation for the appearance of the "gallant man" ^[31], who, with all the virtues of a noble man, still has a secular brilliance and the ability to please. Therefore, the authors of the late XVII - early XVIII century go further than their predecessors, moving away from the controversy about nobility and paying more attention to the art of liking, new language norms, the ability to live and succeed in the world, to achieve harmony and balance within themselves.

            The son of Jacques de Calli?re, the writer and diplomat Francois de Calli?re (1645-1717) continues his father's arguments in the book "On the Knowledge of Light"^[32]. In it, the opposition of Christian values and secular virtues inherent in his father's views is no longer present, but the secular gallant ideal wins. According to the author, the duty of a noble person is to live and achieve happiness in society, following its rules and way of life.  The ancient and chivalrous ideals, in which even love seems to be only a human weakness, seem to him absolutely false. The new requirements that are put forward to a secular person by the gallant era are the ability to please, intelligence, ease in expressing thoughts, knowledge of history, ability to the arts ^[33].      

            In subsequent books, such as "Buzzwords or a new way of speaking"^[34], "About witticisms and good stories"^[35], "About the correct and bad use of expressions. The bourgeois manner and how it differs from the way they speak at court"^[36] Francois de Calli?re touches on the problems of the formation of new linguistic norms, which demonstrate that the royal court has already become a model not only of behavioral, but also of the linguistic ideal. It is noteworthy that the concept of "noble man" is already used by the author in relation to people from the bourgeoisie, however, their language and appearance still makes him laugh.

            No less popular were the books of Pierre d'ortig Vomoriere (1610? - 1693) - an aristocrat, a writer, a man of the world, who was a member of the literary salon of Mademoiselle de Scudery. His books "The Art of Pleasing in Conversation"^[37], published in 1688 and "Various samples of Letters"^[38], published in 1695, demonstrate the final change of the chivalrous ideal to the gallant: "A man who lives by force is less recognized than a gallant man," the author claims ^[39].

            These books were published in five languages and enjoyed extraordinary popularity, as they introduced the reader to the theory and practice of the "art of love", based on modern Cartesian philosophy and human psychology. The whole ethics of communication and the ability to please permeates the idea of measure, reasonableness and correlation with circumstances. The collection of sample letters offers the reader not only samples of the epistolary genre, but also samples of conversation, educating the ability to formulate thoughts in an elegant form.

            By the end of the XVII century, the development of the theory of "the art of liking" was completed.  In Contiere's book "The Links of courtesy or the Secrets of the Art of liking", published in 1702 and dedicated to the Princess de Rohan^[40], this art is formulated as the law of communication in the world. Gallantry, according to the author, is not one quality, but a combination of many qualities, both external and internal, since external courtesy and gallantry are not possible without deep internal qualities. The author emphasizes the main virtues of a secular person, such as charm, gaiety, spontaneity, poise and lack of exaltation, which determine the manner of secular communication.

            The writer, moralist, Jesuit Abbot de Belegard (1648-1734) wrote several books on the art of pleasing in society, the art of conversation ^[41], the rules of behavior and courtesy of young people ^[42]. In the book "Reflections on what can be liked and disliked in the world"^[43], a mature gallant aesthetics is clearly traced behind the criticism of damaged morals. In his opinion, nothing prevents a noble person from leading a secular lifestyle and having God in his soul^[44].           

            His book "A Christian is a Noble Person"^[45] examines the problems faced by a noble person who thinks of himself as a Christian and lives in the light. Belegard's religious-moralistic arguments demonstrate a good knowledge of the world and are built into a coherent system representing a mixture of Stoicism, Christian values and Cartesianism.

If the early authors have a connection between nobility and virtue (including Christian), then the moralist writer Antoine Gombau de Mer, better known as Chevalier de Mer (1607-1684), already believes that the main thing in the concept of "l'honn?tet?" is "the art of liking", based on the ability to live in society, and not on morals^[46].

An example of the spread of the French model of behavior in Europe is the book on French etiquette for foreigners by the writer and playwright Samuel Chapuzot (1625-1701) "Family conversations for the education of foreign aristocrats"^[47], which is published in Amsterdam. It was published in French and German. In the future, this book was republished several times in Geneva, which indicates a great demand for this kind of literature ^[48]. Discussions about the French language, the art of conversation, cuisine, fashion, politics are presented in the form of live dialogues in restaurants, shops, parks between several young people. It is noteworthy that Samuel Chapuzot came from among Protestants and the aristocracy of the mantle, traveled a lot and lived in Geneva for a long time, he is cosmopolitan and his views lack the arrogance or sense of superiority inherent sometimes in French authors.

            All these numerous books on etiquette, the art of liking have been so popular that pocket formats are being published. For example, the "Notebook of a secular person"^[49], addressed to young people entering the world, in which seven universal qualities of a secular person are analyzed.  This work builds a hierarchy of qualities that the author announces in the title of each chapter: Christian values, natural virtues, secular gloss and pleasantness, abilities and practical exercises that a noble person should be engaged in. According to the author, all these qualities are indisputable and every young person entering the world should know them.

            In the XVIII century, interest in the "art of liking" does not weaken. Francois Augustin de Paradis de Moncrief (1687-1770) - poet, writer, who in himself is a model of a successful courtier, in 1738 published the book "Essays on the need and means to please" ^[50]. In it, the theory of the art of liking acquires a final conclusion. By the word "like" he means "a favorable impression that we make on the minds of other people, which disposes them and makes us love"^[51]. According to Moncrief, the engine of communication is the desire to please, it is the social motive of life and helps to maintain a balance between "what society requires of us" and "what we want from it." The desire to be liked makes us acquire virtues, become better^[52]. Moncrief introduces the concept of a "select society", which he understands as a circle of worthy people. Such expressions as "le ton de la bonne compagnie" - "the tone of a good society" and "le bon ton" - "a good tone" appear in his rhetoric^[53]. The source of real authority, real power over people, the author believes, is in the hearts of people, in the ability to arouse their love.

By the middle of the XVIII century, in books on etiquette, conversation culture and the art of liking, an accurate scenography of the conversation was being developed, a set of rules aimed at educating a secular young man was approved. As, for example, the books of Abbot Antoine Francois Prevost (1697-1763) "Elements of courtesy and etiquette. The art of liking in conversation"^[54].

All these authors aimed to educate and form a society of noble people, whose relationships are based on respect for all participants in communication. The value and influence of these books were different, but they all share one feature – they were written by people from the bourgeois stratum or the petty nobility.

After reviewing numerous publications of French writers and moralists of the XVII - first half of the XVIII century, it can be concluded that the rules of behavior in society and at court were not considered by them as a frozen ritual, but corresponded to the new tasks that life set for the participants of secular communication. So in Pierre Ortig de Vomoriere's book "The Art of liking in Conversation", the main characters are ironic about the ceremonies of the old court, which have long been outlived, their inconvenience and say that the question of who will be the first to walk through the door of the Viscount or baron before would be a reason for conflict, and now both the Viscount and the baron people of one chosen circle - soci?t? poli^[55]. 

The gallant ethos thus distances itself from archaic etiquette, declaring its involvement in a different behavioral ideal. This ideal is developed on the basis of new ideas about virtues, nobility, human psychology, the desire for comfortable coexistence of all participants in secular communication, which was very accurately noticed by Mademoiselle de Scuderi, who wrote: "True nobility is, in essence, the ability to live, the ability to always say the word by the way, the ability to maintain with your mind a wonderful knowledge of light"^[56].

The new system of values that emerged in this era, etiquette and behavioral model, formed the basis not only for communication, but also for aesthetic assessments and value attitudes of the ruling elites in the XVII and XVIII centuries. According to Alain Vial, the principle of "the art of liking" developed in secular society and at the court extends not only to the sphere of communication, but passes into the sphere of literature and art in general. The new aesthetics emerging at this time is not only a social or literary phenomenon, but an artistic phenomenon, since "we are talking about the formation of an ethos that has acquired reflexes, thanks to which the manner of behavior coincides with the manner of existence"^[57].