Abstract: The article examines the evolution of international legal and economic grounds for colonial reparations from 1960 to 2026 against the backdrop of a deepening crisis of classical multilateralism and the weakening role of the UN as a central institution of global governance. It demonstrates that the transition from the universalist agenda of the New International Economic Order and the Durban Process to contemporary initiatives for structural and climate reparations occurs amid a paralysis of the UN Security Council, chronic underfunding of the UN system, and the marginalization of Global South countries in decision-making processes. The analysis focuses on the limitations of the classical doctrine of international responsibility (ARSIWA) and the lack of retroactive recognition of colonialism as unlawful, which hampers the formation of a legally binding compensation regime and shifts the focus towards politically agreed and institutionally mediated forms of reparations. The author examines three key areas of modern reparative practice: the Germany-Namibia agreement as an example of "political" reparations with limited legal recognition; the CARICOM strategy built around ideas of restorative justice and a multi-faceted package of measures (apologies, compensation); as well as initiatives of the African Union, such as the "Year of Reparations," the establishment of the African Reparations Fund, and the launch of the Decade of Action 2026–2036. The article justifies a shift from classical "reparativism," focused on past harm and judicial accountability, to the concept of structural reparations, which places the reform of institutions and material conditions that sustain global inequality at the center. Reparations are proposed to be understood as a set of measures for transforming the debt architecture, trade regimes, climate finance mechanisms (including Loss and Damage), and the distribution of influence within international organizations, rather than just as one-time payments from former metropolises. It concludes that in the context of a crisis of multilateralism and the rise of transactional mechanisms, the potential effectiveness of the reparative agenda depends on the ability of Global South countries to act collectively, leverage economic tools (resources, markets, logistics), and strategically combine a universalist language of justice with negotiation pragmatics, transforming the historical "colonial drain" and debt dependency into an argument for profound institutional restructuring of the global economy.

Keywords: colonialism, reparations, international law, new order, neocolonial debt, Board of Peace, arrangements, United Nations, Charter, neocolonialism

Abstract: The subject of the study is Nigerian-Chinese relations in the broader context of the international political economy. It examines trade, foreign direct investment, infrastructure financing and political diplomacy between the two countries, and highlights how these relations are consistent with Nigeria's national interests and global pressures. The authors explore how Nigeria copes with difficult balancing and what consequences this has for its economy, sovereignty and international standing, as well as for further study of the following tasks, as key historical milestones and driving forces of the strategic partnership between Nigeria and China; the history of partnership development in the context of changing geopolitical realities, in particular: in light of the rise of China and the growing competition between the United States and China, as well as the perceived benefits and challenges for Nigeria in maintaining this strategic partnership. This paper uses a qualitative method, using case studies of important sectors affected by Chinese involvement in Nigeria, including infrastructure and energy. It combines policy analysis, trade statistics and diplomatic reports. In addition, a comparative analysis is being conducted to assess how Nigeria's strategy is consistent with that of other African countries cooperating with China. The novelty of the study lies in the fact that for the first time it explores the global transformation of cooperation between countries: the change in U.S. and European policy towards Africa, its impact on Nigeria's relations with China. It also highlights for the first time the impact of new trends, compromises and the emergence of multipolarity in bilateral relations. This study contributes to the existing literature on foreign policy analysis and international relations by identifying patterns in Nigeria's approach that could serve as a model for other African countries facing similar geopolitical challenges. The results of the study showed that Nigeria is building relations with China in the context of global geopolitical changes, facing both opportunities and challenges. By adopting a strategic approach that takes into account all the nuances, Nigeria can take advantage of its relationship with China, while maintaining its sovereignty and contributing to sustainable development.

Keywords: sino-nigeria relations, One Belt One Road initiative, power dynamics, geopolitics, south-south cooperation, foreign policy, economic cooperation, policy of non-alignment, Africa, China-Africa cooperation center

Abstract: The article examines the changes in relations between France and Mali against the background of political crises and changes in internal strategy ("Mali Kura"). The author analyzes how the new Mali Kura policy undermines the traditional model of Franco-Malian relations, previously based on Mali's economic and military dependence on France. The consequences of the withdrawal of French troops and Mali's growing ties with other external players such as Russia and China are discussed. Special attention is paid to the need to review France's strategy in the region in the context of new realities, including the transition to economic and cultural cooperation. The author used a historical method to analyze the origin and development of the term "Francafrica" and its impact on the political situation in Mali. Content analysis was applied to study political speeches, official statements and public sentiment related to the concept of "Mali Kura" in order to identify the key ideas and motives behind the change in French-Malian relations. For the first time, the study comprehensively analyzes the transformation of the concept of "Francafrica" in the context of the formation of an independent political identity of Mali and changes in its foreign policy course. Unlike previous studies focused mainly on the economic aspects of Franco-African relations, this work reveals the impact of the Mali Kura political program on the political and cultural gap with France. Special attention is paid to the analysis of Mali's new international alliances with Russia, Turkey and China, their impact on the system of francocentric elites and on the dynamics of Mali's relations with the former metropolis. This research contributes to the expansion of theoretical knowledge about the mechanisms of decolonization and political emancipation of African countries. The emergence of the concept of "Mali Kura" in political rhetoric, especially during the period of opposition to the power of President Ibrahim Boubacar Keita and after the coming to power of Assimi Goit and Prime Minister Shogel Kokalla Maiga, marked a new stage in the development of relations between the two countries.

Keywords: France, Mali, Francafrique, Mali Koura, Political crisis, Russia, China, Sovereignty, external powers, Troops withdrawal

Abstract: This article addresses the pertinent issue of irreversible transformations in the diplomacy of contemporary states, international organizations, and peoples. Using the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP) as a case study, the contribution of historical, cultural, and linguistic heritage is analyzed as a specific factor fostering positive changes and progress in the lives of the people of these member states. The study aims to analyze the role of the CPLP in modern diplomacy and identify its influence on the formation of relationships between states. The aim of this research is to study the contribution of the CPLP to the development of Portuguese Language Countries. The authors conducted a comprehensive study of the history, development, and achievements of this international organization over its 27 years of existence. Special attention is given to the activities of the International Institute of the Portuguese Language (IIPL). The research successfully achieved its goal and addressed the tasks through the application of SWOT analysis. The relevance of this research lies in the growing importance of multilateral cooperation among countries sharing a common linguistic heritage. Understanding the dynamics and transformations within the CPLP is essential for grasping the changing nature of global diplomacy and the role of language as a unifying force in international affairs. The research successfully examined the formation and development of the CPLP as an actor in international relations, analyzed the activities of the Institute of the Portuguese Language as an accountable body of the organization, and studied the influence of the CPLP on the development of relations among Portuguese Language Countries. Based on the research findings, the authors conclude that the sovereign equality of CPLP member states is a paramount result of the global transformation of diplomatic relations between former metropolis and former colonies.

Keywords: Community of Portuguese-Speaking Countries, Portuguese language, Multilateral cooperation, diplomacy of Portuguese-speaking countries, international cooperation, culture, Cultural interaction, International relations, Influence, Collaboration

Abstract: The object of the study is the foreign policy of the French Republic. The subject of the study is the African vector of France's foreign policy in the 21st century during the presidencies of N. Sarkozy, F. Hollande and the current head of state E. Macron. The purpose of the study is to identify the reasons why France faced difficulties in the African direction of its foreign policy in the 21st century. The author analyses in detail the declarative and practical components of French policy towards Africa in the period under study. Particular attention is paid to the evolution of French military intervention in Africa between 2007 and 2023. The novelty of the study lies in the fact that the study makes a comparative analysis of the discursive and practical dimensions of French policy towards Africa between 2007 and 2023 in order to identify possible reasons for the failure of France's policy course towards Africa in the 21st century. The study concludes that France, which has a long history of colonisation of Africa, still does not consider Africa as an equal partner, while the African dimension of French foreign policy is characterised by a contradiction between its declarative and practical components, as the declared principle of equality as the basis of Franco-African relations actually gives way to the traditional policy of spheres of influence and France's desire to maintain its position on the African continent.

Keywords: foreign policy, France, Africa, Franco-African relations, military presence, colonialism, special partner for Africa, Nicolas Sarkozy, Francois Hollande, Emmanuel Macron

Abstract: This article presents the attempt to analyze the legal status of the borders of foreign settlements in China of the late XIX – early XX centuries through the prism of the status of the corresponding territories. Through the period of the end of First Opium War (1842) and suppression of the Boxer Rebellion, the Qing Empire opens access to their ports for foreign states, which expand their influence in the region through practical division of the country into zones of habitation. The main instrument here is the foreign settlements, which have different legal status and various tasks, but serve as certain indicator of power and influence. The settlements often bordered each other, and their inhabitants commuted across the empire as well as in these territories, which prompted the need for regulation of the emerging legal issues, conflicts and their consequences. For the first time the legal nature of foreign settlements is being researched, as well as the status of their borders, since it defined and protected the interests of the state from infringement by the Qing Empire and the other states. While there were mostly no legal or border issues associated with the rental territories, which predominantly served as places of military presence, similar to current international military bases, position of diplomatic quarters produced rather contradictory opinions, analysis of which is carried out by the author.

Keywords: state border, extraterritoriality, jurisdiction, rental territory, concession, settlement, Diplomatic quarter, foreign settlement, Qing Empire, Russian Empire