Abstract: This article is dedicated to examination of the observable spaces established by authorities since modernity and existing in modern society. Leaning on the works of Michel Foucault, Jean Baudrillard, Gilles Deleuze, Patrick Joyce and others, the author explicates the potential and boundaries of impact of the visual means used by authorities overall, and Panopticon as one of such means in particular. Visual methods of exercising of power are viewed in the context of other sensory modalities of a human. The author determines the perceptive spaces of power, which serve as alternative to Panopticon of Jeremy Bentham. Along with the general scientific methods of research, the author also applies the methodological principles and paradigms of post-structuralism, social constructivism, and interdisciplinary approach. A conclusion is made that the principle of Panopticism is not the universal principle of organization of space of the power in modern society. The mechanism of power within the Panoptic space is realized due to the implicit metaphysical orientations that the enclosed within it individuals are guided by. The author’s main contribution lies in explication of the alternative to Panipticon perceptive spaces of power. The article introduces the term “Panaudion” for designating the acoustic space of the power, designed by Athanasius Kircher. The analysis contains the theoretical sources that are not translated into Russian.

Keywords: panopticon, space, modern society, subject of power, observation, vision, power, panaudion, Michel Foucault, Athanasius Kircher

Abstract: The subject of this research is the complex socio-philosophical issues related to modern understanding of the ideas of rejection of the political and social role of the state. The object of this research is the socio-philosophical and socio-political ideas of Max Stirner. The author considers the peculiarities of comprehending the historical role of the state and its rejection in the process of social development. Special attention is given to the modern interpretations of the thoughts and ideas of Max Stirner, their consoance with new challenges and problems arising in the process of state’s activity. The author insists on the relevance of multiple ideas and regulations of Max Stirner, as well as their theoretical and practical applicability in modern sense of the complicated and contradictory tendencies of social development .The author is also assured in the value of Stirner’s understanding of human, society, and the state in creation of the new, alternative forms of socio-political organization of humanity. The key method of this research consists in analyzing of the text “The Unique and Its Property”, aimed at determination of the insufficiently clear sense of his comprehension of the rejection of state and social functions of the “union of egoists”. The author pursues correlation between certain principles of Max Stirner and the ideas of Kant and Fichte. The scientific novelty lies in the fact that the author negates to accept the established interpretation of the creative heritage of Max Stirner as an Orthodox anarchist of the individualistic sense. The author concludes that some ideas of Max Stirner cannot be reduce to the purely anarchist rejection of the state, and his concept of the “union of egoists” contains practically valuable for the modernity regulations that help to better understand the concept and essence of the transformation taking place in the modern world in perception of the social role and functions of the state. In addition, the author examines the certain aspects of Stirner’s philosophy as a distinct social utopia that contains certain scientific value for understanding the possible prospects of human and social evolution.

Keywords: revolution, freedom, individualism, human, deconstruction, unique, state, anarchism, union of egoists, laws

Abstract: One of the relevant problems of Russian society lies in organization of the efficient counteraction to Islamic terrorism. Special role in preventing of such variety of extremism is played by the ideological struggle with the radical Islamism that must be of complex character. In absence of the integral ideology of counteracting extremism, which is just being outlined, it is essential to pay attention to the religious components that can be a favorable soil for extremism. In the course of fighting the Islamic extremism, remains relevant the position “Islam against Islam”. The author examines the possibility of implementing Sharia in the ideological struggle with the radical Islamism. The article applies the scientific-philosophical  methodology of assessing the peculiarities of functionality of the religious normative system under the specific sociocultural circumstances. The effectiveness of such fight is defined by the present capabilities of Ijtihad that encourage the reformation of Sharia, specificity of public consciousness of Muslim population, as well as peculiarities of sociopolitical orientations of the diverse religious and political movements that interpret the corresponding assignments of Sharia in a specific manner. The author believes that the search for noncontradictory combination of Sharia with the acting national legislation looks promising.

Keywords: Jihadism, Ijtihad, Sharia, ideological struggle, Islamic radicalism, Islamic state, Islamism, Islam, Takfiri, Islamic extremism

Abstract: The article considers the views of I. S. Aksakov on the Slavic question through the prism of those events and processes that most clearly, clearly, passed on the territory of Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Macedonia. Based on the works of the philosopher and journalism of the second half of the XIX century. It shows how heterogeneous in its political sympathies was the Serbian society: its «top» almost invariably gravitated toward the West, and the common people was the representative of the «Russian party». The idea that in the Russian society of the period, although there was no unequivocally positive attitude to the Slavic cause, the idea of a special vocation for Russia as a guardian of justice and balance throughout the world was much more prevalent. Considering and analyzing the philosophical and political ideas of Aksakov associated with the Slavic theme, the author applies the principle of historicism and integrity, as well as personal approach suggesting that views of the philosopher cannot be separated from or adequately perceived outside the context of his spiritual and practical life. A dialogical paradigm is used that allows comparing his ideas with the views of other thinkers. It is alleged that Aksakov influenced the socio-political atmosphere with his philosophical and political articles and speeches, exacerbating interest in the Slavic issue. Conclusions are drawn that the Slavic theme, which the Slavophiles deepened in their work, remains relevant at present time; for the majority of Russian philosophers of the XIX century is inherent deep intuition in cognizing the universal.

Keywords: Austria-Hungary, the Balkans, Serbian tribe, idea of Moscow Tsardom, idea of German unity, Djordje Petrovic Karađorđe, Aksakov, Turkey, Vasily Ostrozhsky, Slavic theme

Abstract: The subject of this research is the determination of peculiarities of interrelation between the government and society. The object is the examination of notions of “legitimation” and “violence” that characterize such interrelation. The author meticulously reviews various approaches towards the understanding of relationship between the government and society, which are provided in form of the normative and descriptive theories. Due to this fact, the article considers the possible level of congruency of the terms “legitimation” and “violence”, as well as their correlation with other notions, such as “discourse”, “physical violence”, “legitimate violence”, “justice”, “and agreement”. Methodology of this research is the analysis of interrelation between the government and society in form of reflection of the terms “legitimation” and “violence”, as well as viable synthesis of these notions. The main conclusion of consists in determination of the position of violence as a certain stage of evolution of legitimation in capacity of legitimate violence, the highest level of which is the legality. Perception of the legitimate violence as a final stage of evolution of legitimation leads to the distorted understanding of legitimation. Thus, legitimation is viewed as a process of development of a discourse that is based on the unspoken agreement towards active cooperation that is centered around the mutual understanding of individuals.

Keywords: physical violence, legitimate violence, discourse, society, government, violence, legitimation, agreement, justice, legality

Abstract: This article is dedicated to examination of the rights and freedoms of an individual as the ideal values of the modern state. The work substantiates the position that human rights as a universal category serve as a significant dominant in development of civil society alongside the counterforce of absolutization of political power of the state in the process of establishment of constitutionalism. Rights and freedoms are the ideal value of any modern democratic state; because firstly, a person represents the highest value of social development, and, secondly, the purposes of existence and functionality of the government apparatus itself. Thus, the recognition, consolidation in the existing legislation (primarily the Constitution), adherence to and protection of the rights and freedoms of man and citizen, on one hand – is the cornerstone of  formation and functionality of the government apparatus in modern democratic state as; and on the other hand – one of the main goals and tasks of the state.

Keywords: democracy, Constitution, people, modern state, ideal value, citizen, man, freedom, law, government

Abstract: The aim of the present article is to study essentialist and post-essentialist approaches towards the subject of power. Modern political philosophy has revealed methodological inconsistency of essentialist interpretation of the ruler which was regarded as a phenomenon determined by supreme metaphysical essence (Wesen). Unsound is today the classical subject-object model of power in general. Using the ideas of Friedrich Nietzsche, Alexandre Kojeve, Louis Althusser, Michel Foucault and other thinkers, the author examines in detail the causes of the crisis and heuristic incompleteness of essentialism in political philosophy. The article considers the attempts to overcome it. The author makes explicit ambiguity of the ways of describing and characterizing of the power subject represented in classical and modern concepts.Along with general scientific research methodology the author uses constructivist and poststructuralist approaches, hermeneutic methodology as well as the method of comparative analysis of philosophical doctrines.The novelty of the research lies in the comprehensive and systematic characterization of essentialist theories of power, explication of methodological "problem areas" of essentialism and constructivism. The author concludes the methodological fruitless using of classical Cartesian subject category in modern political and philosophical studies. However, the total elimination of this category from the arsenal of the modern political and philosophical thought demonstrating a broad conceptual apparatus for the expression of subjectivity is also untenable. The special contribution of the author consists in non-classical interpretation of the category of power subject in the works of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Carl von Clausewitz.

Keywords: Foucault, Kojeve, Servant and master, Metaphysics, Essentialism, Political philosophy, Trancendency, Transgression, Power, Subject

Abstract:   This article is dedicated to the reviews of the annual international forum, which takes place in the Saint-Petersburg University of the Humanities and Social Sciences. At attempt is conducted to examine the types and trends of humanitarian thought, as well as designate the characteristics of the direction that is presented in Likhachev Readings. The author gives characteristics to the general topics of the latest forum discussion: the problem of mission of the philosophy and humanitarian thought in the modern world, and possibility of the universal unity; as well as reviews the presented approaches towards the solution of international conflicts. It is demonstrated how all the reporters, despite the discordance of opinions, support the common idea of humanitarization of the modern culture. The relevance of the general topic of the forum consists in the problems of the dialogue of culture in the global world, which is substantiated based on the general ethical ideas, as well as structural-historical grounds, i.e. the result of development of a certain type of thinking, which simultaneously leads to universalization of culture, and recognition of cultural differences. The modern humanitarian thought is classified by the two types of relation to the aforementioned conflict. On one hand, it can be understood as the source of specificity of the modern culture based on such conflict. Such thought is called “paradoxical” and contain the radical critical movements of the present time. On the other hand, we can suggest that the understanding of the conflict creates the conditions for its overcoming, as well as humanitarization of the existing type of culture. Such though is called “humanitarian” in the article. The academic community of Likhachev Readings leans namely to the latter type of interpretation of the modern processes.  

Keywords: global community, universalization of culture, cultural differences, conflict, humanitarization, paradox, international conflicts, modern culture, dialogue, humanitarian knowledge

Abstract: The subject of this article is the analysis of integration possibilities and disintegration risks of the “Russian world” – a phenomenon that lately has attained a new sound, as well as became a subject for an extensive public discussion. The author makes an accent on the fact that the “Russian world” concept was being formed simultaneously in several platitudes: political, ethnical, economic, and cultural; thus the specificity of such phenomenon should undergo a comprehensive examination. Special attention is given to the issue of how the “Russian world” became an element of the Russian political culture; how harmoniously and/or controversially it combines ethnical, imperial, and national beginnings; which practical meanings can be determined with regards to this notion today. Based on the analysis of the theories on the heritage of the Russian philosophical thought, an attempt was made to translate a number of positions, associated with the “Russian world” concept, upon the modern sociopolitical reality of Russia, as well as critically apprehend the positive, promising, and potentially dangerous variants of interpretation of this notion in the current context. An impression can be formed that the term “Russian world” is an element of the present political language. At the same time, the attempts to mark the limits of the Russian world and to find its conceptual seed are taking place over a decade, and are certainly located not just in the political rhetoric, but also have a vivid philosophical aim.  The article presents a number of conclusions pertaining to the current stage of existence of the Russian world, which has to overcome the inner contradictions, and continues developing in the conditions of significant geopolitical shifts and complication of the sociopolitical space.

Keywords: nationalism, theory of culture, P. B. Struve, geocultural strategy, integration strategies, Russian world, empire, ethnic identity, nation, political philosophy

Abstract: The subject of this research is the prison metaphor in the Russian political discourse. The importance of metaphor in political statements and the dynamic of metaphoric preferences in the modern Russian political discourse are being demonstrated. The author determines the cultural-historical and philosophical aspects of the connection between the discourse of authority (both, official and oppositional) and the statements characteristic for prison culture; the social and cultural consequences of such interaction are also being detected. During the analysis of the literary and philosophical texts, two types of interpretation of the prison culture characteristic for the Russian culture, as well as their influence in the modern political discourse, are being detected. The author substantiates the methodology of defining the political metaphor, classification of metaphors, as well as distinguishes metaphorical models, which help interpreting the modern political reality. On the examples of speeches of the political figures of the XX-XXI centuries, the author emphasizes the typical ways of expression, within the context of which the prison metaphor is being used. Scientific novelty consists in challenging an entire list of debatable issues associated with the historical-cultural prerequisites of the formation of various types of political discourse, including foreign which attempts to interpret the Russian reality. The author defines the various strategies of application of a prison metaphor within political discourse, depending on its historical realities and ideological orientations.

Keywords: Political figure, Ideology, Human rights, Image of prisoner, Prison culture, Prison, Statement, Methodology of research, Metaphor, Political discourse

Abstract: Nietzsche’s socio-political thought and proposed by him all-encompassing reformation of culture and society is subjected to a thorough examination and reframing. In the first part of the article, the author determines a theoretical base of the project of structuring a new society of New Beginning and follows its strict genetic link with the metaphysics, philosophy, history, ethics, and anthropology of the thinker. The second part is dedicated to the reconstruction of Nietzsche’s ideal state and detailed narration and analysis of his core principles. In the conclusion, Nietzsche’s image of the future and its alternative scenarios is being described. The topic of the article despite the scientific traditions of Nietzsche studies is being examined from the systematic positions. It allows eliminating the gaps that exist almost in all of the researches in this area: calling Nietzsche’s political thoughts “naïve”, fragmentary, and inconsequent, they do not attempt to reconstruct the socio-political ideal of the philosopher, rather list his opinions on various near-political issues. The main conclusion consists in the fact that Nietzsche definitely had a vivid idea about the society of the New Beginning, with the following key theses: Nietzsche’s state possesses a hierarchical social structure and free mutually-opposite vertical mobility between social categories; is polytechnic with no discrimination; is multicultural and pluralistic; is global in its aspirations, etc.  

Keywords: Nitsshe, Novoe Nachalo, nigilizm, pereotsenka tsennostei, preodolenie nigilizma, politicheskaya filosofiya, etika, filosofy budushchego, sverkhchelovek, Novoe vremya

Abstract: In her article Chernovitskaya analyzes the growth of the political, social, economic and other genocide practices in the world, their acceptability and emergence of new violent practices which underlines the conceptual crisis of the term 'genocide', its controversial and contradictory nature. This emphasizes the need for creating an objective criterion for defining genocide. Chernovitskaya underlines how important it is to move from the principle of political premeditation in determining genocide to the principle of the system regularities, according to which the political, economic and social changes combined with the negligence of the ruling regime lead to massive destruction of the group, despite the fact that the destruction of the group is not directly intended. At the same time, at the present stage of developmet of human society the most dangerous feature is becoming the tendency towards transformation of direct genocide into indirect kind of genocide. This tendency is manifested in delibirate economic interventions aimed at changing the cultural and historical environment, in biological interventions aimed at changing the natural environment, and etc. Widespread modern technology does not only brings a person beyond his physical abilities, but also reduces the responsibility of management systems and distorts the concept of responsibility leading to gradual weakening of personal moral responsibility.

Keywords: directed change, genocide, tendency towards transformation, intention, system regularities, indirect genocide, violent practices, technologies, moral responsibility, conceptual crisis

Abstract: The article is devoted to the analysis of creative work, educative and teaching activities of a famous Russian historian, professor, dean of the Faculty of History and Language Studies at Moscow University Timofey Granovsky (1813 - 1855). Special attention is paid to the views on the historical process and philosophy of history. Based on the memories of his contemporaries, the author of the article demonstrates the highly important role of teaching activities and educative projects of Timofey Granovsky in the formation and development of the liberal philosophy and politics in Russia. Using the method of social and historical re-enactment, the author describes the social and political environment in Russia of the XIXth century. This allows to explain it was Granovsky who became the main figure of enlightenment and Westernism that was just budding in Russia. Analysis of Timofey Granovsky's views and his educative activity demonstrates that he was a liberal philosopher. Based on the analysis of recently published researches, the author of the article shows that Timofey Granovsky's legacy is still of great current interest and importance to researchers in the sphere of Russian social studies. 

Keywords: Timofey Granovsky, philosophy of history, philosophical club, educative activities, liberalism, Westernizers, Slavophiles, Alexander Herzen, Boris Chicherin, Moscow University

Abstract: In his article Myth and Politics in the Birth of Tragedy by Friedrich Nietzche Mochkin analyzes the integrative approach to studying the unprecedented phenomenon of the Paris Commune Friedrich Nietzche witnessed himself. The Birth of Tragedy is a very important work in Friedrich Nietzche's creative legacy because it does not only present the new philosophical teaching of the philosophy of life but also offers a new approach to understanding the classical Greek heritage since the times of the Weimar classicism, new interpretation of the value and role of art in the life of Greeks, so called 'aesthetic preservation', new interpretation of Schopenhauer pessimism in terms of Friedrich Nietzche's philosophy of life and, most importantly, attempt to solve the problems of the social development, assessment of social justice and the role and meaning of Enlightenment rationalistic solutions opposed to the traditional interpretation of social justice as it is presented in myths of the ancient times, in particular, personal social justice of a very contradictory mythological image of Oedipus or the prince Hamlet. In his research Mochkin also underlines that the Birth of Tragedy is the only holistic, devoted to one topic and complete essay of the philosopher which nevertheless presents all the proceeding scope of Nietzche's philosophical searches and insights. This is the work in which the philosopher shares his social and political attitudes and his conservative views on German social reality of the 80th of the XIXth century. For the first time he viewed ancient myth and politics as the symbiosis of political mythology and mythological politics completely opposing to Gründerzeit that was spread all over Germany as a result of multi-billion reparations from conquered France after Franco-Prussian War of 1871.  

Keywords: philosophy, art, conservatism, liberalism, myth, modernism, justice, postmodernism, tragedy, traditionalism

Abstract: The present work consists of the two parts. The first part is the translation of Leo Strauss' article 'On the Minos', a classical example of Strauss interpretation of ancient texts. The second part is devoted to the analysis of the aforesaid work in which Strauss raised one of the most important questions of classical political philosophy - what is the law? The analysis is focused on the main aspect of legislation - public consent described by Strauss as the agreement between Socrat, the philosopher who possessed knowledge, and his nameless interlocutor who did not possess knowledge. In order to provide an insight into Strauss philosophy, the author of the article uses the method of attentive reading described by Strauss that allows to avoid superficial or trivial interpretation of the text. Leo Strauss is the philosopher who created grounds of non-conservative political ideology and is not so well known in Russia. Very few of his works have been translated into Russian and very scarcely analyzed. The question whether an agreement (i.e. law) is possible between two different types of people is quite a usual one because quite often people have to obey rules of incompetent legislators who were elected by incompetent electors. Strauss gave quite an unusual and original answe to that question. 

Keywords: Leo Strauss, Socrates, Plato, Minos, Hipparch, Protagoras, consent, deception, politics, law

Abstract: In his article Aliev makes an attempt to look at the general, special and universal mechanisms of transformation of the different political cultures in terms of political globalization.Political studies of the transformation of political culture in the globalization process are of particular importance because the transformation of different political cultures in the process of political globalization may lead to unexpected results.The political culture of the modern world in the society of global relations contains elements of traditional political culture of each particular state.The concept of "political culture" is investigated within the framework of the various sciences. It should be noted that the concept of political culture is used in the current political science to understand what distinguishes the political cultures of different countries. This article attempts to light the essence of political culture, and in particular the problems of its formation in modern Azerbaijani society. The author of the article also talks about the different approaches to the study of political culture in Azerbaijan.

Keywords: traditional political culture, transformation, diversity of political cultures, society, political globalization, political cultures, philosophy, values, civilization, Eurocentrism

Abstract: In his article Mochkin analyzes Friedrich Nietzsche’s attempt to create the theory of the ‘eternal return’. This ‘positive’ philosophy (in Nietzsche’s interpretation) was opposed to the liberal and socialistic theories of social development or so called ‘theories of the future’ or ‘progressive development’ that dominated in the XIX century. Being a sort of anti utopia and a conservative traditional response to the challenges of those times, the concept of eternal return was taken by the philosopher as a ‘gift’ and ‘prophecy’ and became the central topic of late Nietzsche’s philosophy. This is an esoteric concept that can’t be verified or demonstrated. The concept of eternal return has the two levels: the ontological (cosmological or physicalized) level that was described by the philosopher only in his draft papers and the social-political or existential level that was presented in his books ‘Thus spoke Zarathustra’ (1883) and ‘Beyond Good and Evil’ (1886). As a ‘mental experiment’ the concept of eternal return is opposed to the moral and ethic values of the European civilization. The concept of eternal return re-interprets and re-phrases Kant’s categorical imperative into an existential law of the future society of ‘Great policy’, the theory of ‘superman’, ‘reassessment of values’, ‘nihilism’ and ‘will to power’. The theory of eternal return was popular during the crisis of the conservative revolution in Germany in the 20th – 30th of the XX century and had an influence on the society and the artistic elite of those times.

Keywords: philosophy, power, will, eternity, nihilism, reappraisal of values, superman, development, progress, conservatism, liberalism.

Abstract: In his article Prokofiev points out that not all aspects of activity of presidency as an integrated institution of state authority can be regulated by legal and political means. In itself, scientific research of this institution is closely connected with the attempt of the humanity to solve the philosophical problem about creation an ideal legal model of state authority organization. In this regard, the purpose of the present article is to prove that it is possible to apply the method of epistemological analysis to studying the phenomenon of presidency. Using the methods of historical and comparative analysis Prokofiev demonstrates the fact that today the human mind is still rather blind in understanding the institution of presidency. Such understanding ‘degrades’ the nature of politics and law as the part of presidency and distorts it which, in its turn, hinders the evolutionary development. The novelty of the article is in viewing the institution of presidency as a phenomenon that was initially based on the philosophical-epistemological grounds and reflection. Therefore, the author of the article states that detachment of the institute of presidency from these elements contradicts to the nature of the phenomenon itself. In his research Prokofiev compares the epistemological paradigm with the rational paradigm as well as capacities of the legal political instruments when analyzing this phenomenon. According to the author, multi-paradigmality and inter-disciplinary basis of the reflective process associated with the phenomena prove that it can be a good topic for other researches. Applying the systems approach to analyzing philosophical categories, Prokofiev makes an assumption that each ‘paradigm’ locus and each element of the institution of presidency have their own epistemology and ontology. The epistemological approach offered by the author of the article is new and may turn out to be rather efficient because it has a complex methodology and allows to catalyze the evolution of the institution of presidency by better understanding elements of presidency and combining institutional and non-institutional factors of its development. At the same time, Prokofiev admits that this approach has certain drawbacks as a methodological instrument of analysis, too.

Keywords: episteme, institution of presidency, President of the Russian Federation, presidency, epistemology of power, epistemological competence, legal political reflection, reflection of governance, evolution of the institution of presidency, philosophical analysis.

Abstract: The article is devoted to the problem of the imperial as a category of political philosophy. In the first part of the article the author analyzes common myths related to the term ‘empire’ and proves these myths to be indefensible and very different from actual historical events. The second part of the article views the category ‘imperial’ in terms of its relation to the ideologies that were popular in the 20th century, i.e. nationalism, socialism and liberalism. The author describes the connection between the imperial idea and liberal, nationalistic and socialistic ideas. The author also shows the close connection between the two categories, the ‘imperial’ and ‘civilizations’. The author gives a definition of the positive idea of the empire. The main research methods used by the author include methods obtained from comparative political studies, abstraction (which allows to withdraw from details that do not interest us), analysis and synthesis (which provide the integral concept of the ‘imperial’). There are a lot of conjectures and prejudices around the definition of ‘empire’ and these conjectures and prejudices do not allow us to see the essential features behind the process of establishment of a state which was later called ‘empire’ by historians. According to the author, the category ‘imperial’ is inseparable from the categories ‘universal’ and ‘order’. If we are to give a very short definition of the empire, we can call it a ‘universal order’. In the modern world captured by the wave of globalization, the question about the universal order grows especially important and so does the question about the empire.

Keywords: empire, civilization, ideology, universal order, state, history, global, liberalism, nationalism, socialism.

Abstract: The subject under review of the present article is the power as a management resource and its modernistic and post-modernistic definitions. The author of the article views the power not as itself or a category of its own but rather as a certain resource which is used to govern the state and which we try to view from the point of view of methodology used in researches of power and its being part of the management processes. The author also views the efficient use of power firstly as a rational process during which cause-and-effect connections and relations are predicted and traced and secondly as a process where a resource (power in our case) is used to the best advantage according to the ‘contribution-return’ criterion. The research is based on Jacques Derrida’s approach stating that the dynamics between centralization and decentralization of power are also binary and cyclic. The main conclusion made by the researcher is that the general solutions made regarding the ‘optimal’ balance between centralization and autonomy as well as the term ‘optimality’ in the state management will be only theoretical while practical solutions should be considered only temporary.

Keywords: Machiavelli, treatise, Derrida, power, government, efficiency, optimality, politics, modernism, post-modernism.

Abstract: The present article is devoted to the analysis of ‘slavery’ in Aristotle’s interpretation as well as Aristotle’s political concepts and theories applied to modern reality. The author of the article analyzes writings by Aristotle, Plato, Hans Gadamer and Zakiriya. The author stresses out that Aristotle had many ideas that are undeservingly forgotten nowadays or even rejected, mostly due to their wrong interpretation such as Aristotle’s concept of ‘mastery and slavery’. Aristotle’s ‘slave’ would mean a peasant, industrial worker or modern software programmer. Based on Aristotle, slavery is natural and it is quite natural that some people are born slaves even though they can be free officially while others would never be slaves even if they become slaves in reality. The author of the article comes to the conclusion that Aristotle’s ‘nature’ includes the entire universe structured according to a certain order. Besides that, Aristotle also analyzed such topics as family and up-bringing.

Keywords: philosophy, theories, economy, politics, government, structure, slavery, human, family, up-bringing.

Abstract: The article is devoted to the nature and elements of the political system, specific features of its formation, its inseparable connection with the political life, and its value for the political development. The authors discuss the dependency of the political system upon the existence of political relations. The author supports the position that a political system is a general form of political life, which has a functional relation towards the components of political organism. The most important functions of political system are presented as functions of the government and the opposition. They serve as the key elements of the political system, they are interrelated and inevitable for the democratic political process. In the same line other elements of political system are possible, and they include the superstructure functions within the political organism, which are being formed in democratic condition. Establishing the nature of the political system allows to establish and formulate the related law of political development. The author offers analysis of the current interpretation of the political system within the official political science.

Keywords: politics, political activity, political government, political relations, government, opposition, political organism.

Abstract: The article is devoted to the definition of political development. The author describes the content, stages, means, forms and grounds of political development and shows a close connection between political development and political life. It is established that political life is one of the means of political development or so called political evolution. Analysis of the structure of political development allows to make a conclusion and understand grounds and forms of political life as well as particular factors of its destruction.

Keywords: philosophy, politics, political being, political life, political dynamics, political changes, political development, political evolution, political process, political progress.

Abstract: The given article views theoretical aspect of studying the influence of socio-cultural factors on political developments. The author of the given article describes the limitations of the ‘political culture’ approach that prevails in Russian and foreign political science today. Since the mentioned approach is not sufficient, the author proves that it is necessary to view dynamics of interaction between political developments and socio-cultural factors over time because culture and politics have always been dynamic phenomena. The author also makes a summary of how this issue relates to such social phenomena as dynamics of political regimes, influence of ethnic, linguistic, socialstratification and religious features on political developments, influence of the level of common wealth, geographic determinism, political and other cultural rituals, international relations, negotiations, identity, separatism, influence on educational policy, up-bringing and etc. The author of the article also talks about practical application of studied theories to solving topical issues of modern policy.

Keywords: cultural studies, culture, cultural dynamics, political culture, political developments, social dynamics, socio-cultural dynamics, socio-cultural factors, theory of culture, theory of politics.

Abstract: The article analyzes Nietzsche’s philosophy of late period (1888) that became the ‘high point’ of evolution of Nietzsche’s philosophical views, the ‘finishing stroke’ of the period that has a direct influence on his ‘Will to power’. The author underlines specifics of political recommendations and wishes of the philosopher for future generations as described in his conception of the ‘great policy’, in particular, his prophesy addressed to the revolution of nihilism that, based on Nietzsche, was a typical feature of modern epoch. As another version of interpretation of Nietzsche’s philosophy, the author analyzes political philosophy of Spengler — a major philosopher of conservative revolution in Germany in 20’s — 30’s of XX century. Spenger’s ideas made a great impact on formation of national socialism back in those years. Spengler’s theory of ethical socialism touched upon both the ‘will to power’, ‘eternal return of the same’, ‘nihilism’ and the ‘theory of superman’ as the main Nietzsche’s ideas.

Keywords: philosophy, ethical socialism, will to power, superman, nihilism, conservative revolution, reappraisal of values, ressentiment, development, degeneration.

Abstract: The article studies political consciousness as a phenomenon and reveals its nature and close connection between political consciousness and political knowledge as well as provides the definition of political consciousness. The author proves the need in distinguishing political consciousness from conceptual consciousness and therefore associated ideologies. This contributes to understanding of the actual contents of political consciousness and overcoming misconceptions. The author also analyzes types of political knowledge as well as contradictions and gaps in classification of such knowledge.

Keywords: philosophy, politics, political existence, political perception, political knowledge, political consciousness, political knowledge, political science, conceptual consciousness, ideology.

Abstract: Politics are viewed as a special governmental phenomenon. The author of the article studies the nature of politics and the variety of its forms. It is shown that the state policy being developed in a modern democracy state institution is the most complicated and developed political form allowing to reveal not only the nature of each policy but also the patterns and rules of political existence. The author also gives the essential definition of politics.

Keywords: philosophy, politics, political existence, political content, variety of politics, political forms, state policy, nature of politics, leadership, leading resolution.

Abstract: This article is an attempt to analyze Nietzsche’s philosophy from the point of view of metaphysics. The author of the article analyzes the greatest attempt in XX century to mystify Nietzsche’s philosophy made by Martin Heidegger in his search for so called ‘metaphysics’. The article contains a comparative analysis of interpretations of Nietzsche’s philosophy made by famous psychiatrist and philosopher of XX century Karl Jaspers and Martin Heidegger. It is underlined that Jaspers and Heidegger had a very specific attitude to the main interpretations from the Nietzsche Archives proposed by Oswald Spengler and Ernst Junger. Rejecting existential and vulgar sociological interpretation of Nietzsche’s philosophy, Heidegger tries to view it as the final stage of a two-century development of metaphysics. Martin Heidegger tries to construct Nietzsche’s metaphysics similarly to Antique philosophies before Socrates. The author of the article also makes an attempt to describe authentic Nietzsche and his philosophy in which metaphysical categories are combined with mythological concepts. New anthropology cretes a myth about super-human and ‘great policy’ becomes Dionysus Epiphany.

Keywords: philosophy, life philosophy, metaphysics, ontology, existentialism, national socialism, positivism, energetics, will to power, super human.

Abstract: The article reveals peculiarities of democratic political culture and makes an attempt to give a definition of this term. The author describes different concepts viewing democratic political culture as a factor of systematization of political life and democratization of political influence and, finally, as a factor of political process. The author also describes the role of political culture in socialization.

Keywords: philosophy, politics, political culture, democratic political culture, democratic culture, individual culture, political system, political influence, political progress, socialization.

Abstract: The author of the article breaks the tradition to view October Revolution as the beginning of socialism in Russia. In the author’s opinion, the deal is much more than that. It was impossible to solve the centuries-long debates between millions of peasants and Russian nobility and bourgeois class and to create the basis for modern civilization without deposing bourgeois class and destroying capitalism which had been formed after 1861. Non-capitalistic path of our country after the civil war turned out to be hard and dramatic due to economic and cultural undevelopment. Lenin was one of those few who understood how fatal the Jacobinism model of the transfer to socialism was for new Russia. However, Lenin understanding of Russia’s social perspectives came into collusion with communistic beliefs of the majority of Bolshevik Party members who thought they could achieve socialism by simply destroying bourgeois class and proletarian dictatorship. After Lenin’s death those beliefs were supported by Stalin’s government. Thanks to Stalin, socialism is now associated solely with the forced industrialization. Independent peasant household (during so called village collectivization) was sacrificed, terror against discontented was started (so called struggle with the enemies of the people) and totalitarian power of the party leaders was established (proletariat dictatorship). As a result, our country now has to catch up with the other countries and modern civilization just like France long ago did. Nevertheless, Russia has already made the first step towards Modern Age. Today the question is more about speeding up and expansion of this movement in history.

Keywords: philosophy, revolution, Jacobinism, Thermidor, hegemony, Modern Age, compromise, socialism, proletariat, culture.

Abstract: The author of the article reveals the contents of the political culture and analyzes its interpretation approaches which have formed in the political science lately. The author proves the thesis that political culture is a form of social and actually existing culture. The article describes the main types of political culture and based on that, forms the law of existence of political culture.

Keywords: philosophy, politics, political culture, individual culture, social culture, political activity, political behavior, technology of policy formation, democratic political culture, authoritarian political culture.

Abstract: The author of the article describes the details of prerequisites of Jurgen Habermas’ theory of society and his concept of deliberate democracy that is based on discursive agreement of all members of the society concerning essential social issues. With regard to the classical interpretation of democracy Haberman’s principle of consensus is expressed in the idea that legal norms are legitimate not because they are mandatory for all individuals but because these norms are willfully accepted by all members of the society. The research showed that according to the classical theory of democracy, legal norms were to be willfully accepted by individuals because the norms were just and fair. But Habermas’ principle of justice is based on the democracy principle of acceptance of these norms by all individuals these norms relate to. Therefore, justification of legal norms is performed not by the means of practical reason and theory but only trough open discussion of all members of the society.

Keywords: philosophy, democracy, liberalism, law, consensus, discourse, communication, society, individual, rationalism.

Abstract: The article analyzes Neo-Kantian interpretation of Plato’s works (most of all, in, Natorp’s book ‘Plato’s Theory of Ideas’) and its influence on Heidegger’s philosophy. Neo-Kantian philosophers gave Plato special credit for invention of the ‘logical’, but their interpretation of Plato’s texts demonstrates their ignorance of political contents of Plato’s dialogues. Despite the deep interest for ‘politics’ during his epoch, Heidegger could take Neo-Kantian image of Plato at his own evaluation and base on such an image in his own philosophy because it was a perfect variant to realize Nietzsche’s plan of ‘overcoming the platonism’. At the same time, Heidegger’s own views are, in fact, very similar to the elements of Plato’s philosophy ignored by Non-Kantian philosophers. A typical example here is his interpretation of the ‘idea about the good’ as an insight revealed to very few ‘free minds and genius artists.

Keywords: philosophy, Plato, Heidegger, Natorp, Platonism, Neo-Kantianism, politics, idea, transcendentalism, sovereignty.

Abstract: John Adams (1735-1826) is a notable figure of the War of Independence, the second president of the USA and one of the major politicians during the epoch of Enlightenment. His way to philosophical, religious and moral becoming was difficult and full of events. Adam’s early interpretations of God and Bible, human and nature, devotion and virtue cast light on his mature political and philosophical views. When he started to defend colonists’ rights in 1765, Adams proved his principles which he had formed when graduating from Harvard. Going long way from new English pietism to philosophical rationalism of the Enlightenment, John Adams did not only play an important role in determination of nature and peculiarities of the revolution but also became its embodiment and personification.

Keywords: philosophy, Adams, Puritanism, deism, Enlightenment, rationalism, freethinking, humanism, civil, responsibility.

Abstract: The article is devoted to the state authority as an object of the system analysis. The author of the article describes the basic principles of the system of state authority and defines its main functions by analyzing the Russian system of state authorities.

Keywords: philosophy, politics, state institution, state, authority, system, principles, functions, methodology, disengagement.

Abstract: The article analyzes the development of neoconservative conception of the ‘great politics’ by F. Nietzsche in Mouller van den Bruck’s work ‘The Third Reich’ and his theory of the ‘third way’ opposing to both the liberal ‘Americanization’ and ‘Bolshevikization’ of Germany during a so-called ‘conservative revolution’ in the 20th-30th of the 20th century. The article studies the neoconservative attempts to create the ‘third party’ built upon the national revolutionary ideology as peculiar variant of ‘proto fascist’ party.

Keywords: philosophy, liberalism, nationalism, conservatism, Marxism, socialism, ‘philosophy of life’, democracy, culture, Nietzscheanism.

Abstract: The article views the two types of micro-societies existing in the global area of power, - the church and the sect. The latter are based on the two types of discipline, - authoritarian discipline and the discipline of inferential control. The author studies the situation of co-existence of the authoritarian discipline and the discipline of self-organization, on the one hand, and political technologies and controlling mechanisms, on the other hand. A certain balance between them is called the disciplinary balance. The author pays attention at the universal nature of principles of organization of a society at the micro and macro levels, hierarchization being the most important tool for the political structuring of the micro-society. It is noted that coarse, Mongol-like technologies have prevailed at the macro-level in the Russian area. However, autochthonous technologies have dominated for many centuries at the micro-level.

Keywords: philosophy, power, discipline, control, micro-society, hierarchization, society, Weber, Foucault, Podoroga.

Abstract: The article analyzes Friedrich Nietzsche’s conception of ‘Great Politics’ created during the last years of his creative work. The author of the article also describes the role this conception plays for formation of ideology of the conservative revolution in Germany during the 20th – 30th of the 19th century.

Keywords: philosophy, conservatism, revolution, nihilism, Utopia, aristocraticism, rank, caste, power, perspectivism.

Abstract: The article is devoted to democratic consolidation, basic theories of solidarity and conceptions of solidarity practices. The author of the article defines the basic terms used in the article from the point of view of the theory and everyday life. The article has two sections. The first section ‘Transitology as a variant of the modernization theory oriented at democratic consolidation’ views the term ‘consolidation’ in accordance with its meaning in transitology, - a variant of the modernization theory simplified to recognition of democracy and the market. There consolidation is viewed as the final stage of the democracy transit. The second section ‘Consolidation, solidarity and solidaristic practices’ covers concrete theories of solidarity and solidarism.

Keywords: philosophy, consolidation, solidarity, dialogue, convention, modernization, environment of concord, saturation, crisis, democracy

Abstract: The article describes what the two early representatives of the philosophy of industry thought of a state institution. Despite significant theoretical differences between their theories, both of them believed that activities in industry and science were a sign of aristocrats of the new industrial society

Keywords: philosophy, politics, society, manufacturing, human, history, science, mass, dialectics

Abstract: Review: in the modern world the paradigm of memory in history has acquired the role of a very complex social and cultural phenomenon. “Historical memory” still remains a good tool for handling a political struggle (“historical content” of ideologies and “historical material” for building political myths and ideologemes). In the context of the social and cultural development, “historical memory” is becoming a new political goal, some kind of the “social health”. The information society provides a wide range of opportunities for manipulating “historical memory”: since there is so much information (or “information noise”) around us, it is becoming more difficult t define what is necessary to remember and what is better to forget. “Historical memory” plays the double role, of a tool and a goal of policy. Now it is also becoming a political value and gaining ontological, gnoseological and ethical meaning. Key words: information society, memory in history, national identity, ethic and national self-consciousness, “policy of memory”, social communication, “social health”, totalitarianism, values, civilization.

Abstract: This is one of a few articles published under the title “Immanuel Kant’s metaphysics of law and modern age”. These articles enlighten the main ideas of metaphysics of law, i.e. Immanuel Kant’s philosophical and legal teaching in the context with the modern age. The author described in which way Kant’s views on law and government influenced the modern world formation in conditions of globalization. The author paid special attention at the main conceptions of Kant’s philosophy about international law and ways to achieve the eternal peace.

Keywords: Immanuel Kant, philosophy of law, juridical studies of Kant, life and work of Immanuel Kant, Copernicus’ reform in philosophy, philosophy of Immanuel Kant, studies about law and government, government, philosophical and juridical ideas.

Abstract: Abstract: the article is aimed at answering the question what made Carl the Great to declare himself an imperator and to revive the empire in the West and what that empire was like. The author is analyzing contradictory data and points of views on that event. It is concluded that Frankish empire was potentially universal because it was based on the idea of the Christianand the Roman empires altogether. The author suggested that Carl accepted the Roman tradition even though his Carolingian idea of empire had other elements as well. In conclusion the author also described the three “roots” of the Roman idea of empire which determined the historical development of the West.

Keywords: carl the Great, empire, “revival of the Rome Empire”, Carolingians, Christian empire, Frankish idea of empire, Roman idea of empire, histosophy, Pope.

Abstract: Abstract: the article considers a problem of correlation between the democracy and authoritarianism in post-Soviet and contemporary Russian politics. Relying on the researches of Russian political scientists, sociologists, social philosophers, the author has demonstrated that the origins of authoritarianism may be found in the political practice of the middle of 1990th. It is also demonstrated that the far evolution of political regime depended upon a failure of social and economical reforms of 1990th, but at the same time it is now getting its own way because of the deep transformation of the social structure of the Russian society.

Keywords: politics, power, society, modernization, reform, democracy, authoritarianism, conservatism, legitimacy.

Abstract: The author discussed the problem which he called “social disciplining”. He described this phenomenon in detail based on Fuco’s works and payed special attention at Russia’s history and modern life.

Abstract: Now most psychological articles or pedagogical handbooks on raising children clearly state that children are individuals and their individuality should not be oppressed. But what is the value of the “small person’s world” for us, grown – ups?