Abstract: The article is devoted to the problem of semantic evolution of pagan terminology in Christian theology. A specific token becomes the subject of consideration "σωτήρ", which has gone through a long history of semantic transformation: from the savior to earthly adversities and misfortunes in the pagan world (natural objects, people, mythological creatures could act as saviors and even the gods) to the Savior of human souls in Christianity. The authors demonstrate how the content of the concept was modified and how, along with the religious meaning, a political component emerged and established itself in the structure of meaning by the Hellenistic era, and then was again pushed into the background. It is suggested that the political connotations are caused not so much by the "power ambitions" of the Church, but, firstly, by the socio-cultural context in which Christianity arose, and, secondly, by the specifics of the pagan worldview in which the idea of sacralizing power was rooted. The task of the authors, who worked with rather archaic material, was not only to reveal the logic of semantic shifts, to understand how Christian theology could become heard in the space of pagan culture. The authors believe that the success of Christian preaching was not least due to the cognitive strategies chosen by the Church, which were directly poisoned by pagan concepts in the work.

Keywords: theology, soteriology, sacralization, cognitive strategy, semantic shift, paganism, christianity, power, the savior, transcendence

Abstract: The problem of the immanentization of the religious ideal is explicated in the context of cultural history as a synchronous "movement" from idea to ideal and from ideal to idea. In the process of realizing the idea of the transcendent within the framework of the Christian tradition, its immanentization takes place – reduction to ultimate forms that can be considered based on the intuition of potential infinity (ancient tradition) and based on the intuition of actual infinity (Christian philosophy). The intuition of actual infinity is actualized in the eschatological relation to the Other, and the intuition of potential infinity in the principle of hierarchy, universal for the Christian tradition. The synthesis of these intuitions, with the predominance of one of them, is a tragedy for the Christian tradition, which determines the peculiarities of the spiritual searches of thinkers. The reflection of this tragedy in the works of Alexander Schmemann suggests a return to the "attitude" characteristic of early Christianity for the future, correlating with the preserved tradition based on hierarchy. At the same time, the philosopher's spiritual quest reflects the process of devaluation of the hierarchical principle in Christian culture, stimulating the inversion of the hierarchy, when transcendence can be realized through low-ranking humor and foolishness. The work uses the method of historical and philosophical reconstruction, which allows to identify the features of the interaction of the transcendent and immanent in certain philosophical and religious concepts. The synchronic method explicates the mutual correlations between philosophical and religious concepts belonging to the same historical period. The diachronic method makes it possible to actualize the features of the immanentization of the religious ideal in the work of thinkers belonging to different historical periods. The scientific novelty of the research lies in the combination of reflection on the relationship between the transcendent and the immanent, carried out on a rational basis by European philosophy and the study of the experience of transcendence described by specific Christian writers and thinkers (in particular St. Augustine). Thanks to this combination, the study realized the possibility of considering the relationship of the transcendent and immanent in the history of European philosophy using the logic of the symbol by A.F. Losev, when the structure of the interaction of the symbolized and the symbolizing is extrapolated to the correlation of the transcendent and immanent, and the scope of the concept of "transcendent-immanent" becomes equivalent to its content. The process of immanentization of the transcendent is considered simultaneously from the outside (from the point of view of the dialectic of concepts) and from the inside from the point of view of changing the paradigm of religious life in culture, which allows us to take into account its features.

Keywords: Christianity, Life, synthesis, hierarchy, devolution, immanentization, idea, ideal, reduction, culture

Abstract: This article examines the history of denominationalism – the division of Protestantism into a multitude of independent religious associations, freely competing with each other. This approach to typologising religious associations, initially adopted for Protestant communities within the United States, has become a global phenomenon. Since the early 1980s, there has been a vigorous debate in the sociology of religion about the contemporary meaning of denominations. There is a growing number of independent churches that do not wish to be associated with any of the Protestant denominations; megachurches are leaving denominations or trying not to emphasise their affiliation with any particular denomination; some megachurches and church organisations are growing into a transdenominational evangelical movement with worldwide influence. The article is based on an analysis of the work of sociologists of religion on the issue of denominationalism in Protestant organizations, ranging from Richard Niebuhr to researchers drawing on contemporary statistical data. The existing congregations that emphasize their denominational identity, none of them exist in a denominational isolated cocoon any more – worship practices and music, missional objectives and educational resources can be adopted from other non-denominational churches and trans-denominational evangelical movements. The very concepts of megachurch, independent church, and evangelical movement can be viewed as separate denominations. Using these terms, members of a congregation identify themselves as holding certain beliefs and engaging in certain practices in common with others around the world. The trend toward the emergence of independent churches is part of the new course of Protestantism – post-denominational Protestantism.

Keywords: Charismatic movement, Globalization, Pentecostalism, Evangelical movement, Megachurch, Transdenominationalism, Non-denominationalism, Denominationalism, Protestantism, Typology of religious associations

Abstract: The study of the cultural activity of the Spiritual missions of the Russian Orthodox Church in various regions of Russia is one of the urgent tasks in the context of the problematic field of the theory of regionalism, cultural studies and socio-philosophical knowledge. Russian settlements on the territory of the Yenisei River basin and the entry of ethnic groups and territories of Yakutia and Buryatia into the Russian Empire has become one of the most important stages of the integration of the ethnic groups of Siberia into a single statehood. The Irkutsk Spiritual Mission received a more perfect organization, institutionalized by increasing the number of missionary camps, which for successful Christian activities carried out among pagans allowed the formation of school educational institutions for the education and upbringing of a new Buryat generation of children in the doctrinal Orthodox canons, and Russian cultural traditions. In this regard, one of the key tasks of the missionaries was to establish a rational view of further life in new Christian-type formations, which was realized in socio-cultural activities: providing medical care to sick representatives of other ethnic groups, a friendly attitude to people of a different faith and a sincere desire to guide them on the path of righteousness, etc. It should be noted that the largest share of foreigners in this territory belonged to Buddhists, which was reflected in the influence of lamas on doctrinal issues, including economic ones. Since Buddhism in the Russian Empire belonged to the section of tolerant religions, direct (administrative) pressure on it was impossible. There remained funds of an exclusively spiritual nature, to which Orthodox missionary work was directed. Today in the Russian Federation, Buddhism, as well as Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism, as well as some other faiths belong to the category of traditional religions, which organizationally operate within the framework of the modern Russian Constitution.

Keywords: The Russian Empire, shamans, population of region, christianity, regional government, cultural activity, culture, Russian Orthodox Church, religion, spiritual character

Abstract: This article analyzes the successes of the Communist Party's power in Russia and the methods of achieving them from the point of view of Orthodox Christianity. The relevance of the research is due to the fact that this topic is directly related to the structure of society, and there are (often acute) discussions on this issue. In this paper, a historical and theological analysis of the topic under study is carried out on the basis of a critical study of the works of V. Lenin, his closest associates, historical and theological works and historical documents on the issue under study. In this article, an attempt is made to present a systematic analysis of the subject under study, an appeal is made to opponents. The novelty of the research lies in the fact that many documents are analyzed for the first time in connection with the topic under study. Also, in more detail and systematically, in relation to the available works, the analysis of this subject is carried out. The aim of the work is a critical study of historical documents, as well as historical and philosophical works on the issue under study. The article concludes that the methods of achieving the successes of the Bolsheviks in Russia are incompatible with Christianity. In addition, atheistic construction is like the construction of the Tower of Babel, stopped by God, i.e. from the point of view of Orthodoxy, the successes of Bolshevism cannot be called successes, and millions of souls forcibly torn away from God as a result of the planting of atheism repeatedly crossed off all the achievements of the USSR.

Keywords: the state system, morality, orthodox monarchy, sharashki, Church, The Tower of Babel, achievements of communism, christianity, orthodoxy, methods of the Bolsheviks

Abstract: The article is devoted to the Tibetan-language work of the modern Tibetan master Geshe Tupten Pelsang "Compilation of Sutras for the synthesis of the path to Enlightenment with reference to the topics set forth in the Great Lamrim" (lam rim chen mo'i sa bcad kyi zur rgyan mdo btus lam sgrig). It is established that this is the first Roman (extra-sectarian) Lamrim based solely on excerpts from the Word of the Buddha (Kangyur) and does not use a set of Buddhist shastras ‒ Tengyur. There are various texts that bring together the instructions transmitted by Shakyamuni Buddha. It is determined that in this case such kind of genre as anthology (btus-pa) is considered. It is a thematic selection and bringing in a certain order of quotations of the Word of the Buddha, but at the same time expresses a certain opinion and creativity of the author himself. At the same time, it was revealed that the work is based on a structural presentation of the stages of the path to enlightenment according to the "Big Lamrim" of Je Tsongkhapa. It is determined that the author does not derive the justification of the correctness of the provisions of the lamrim (step-by-step path) from logical argumentation, but conducts it by fully quoting a canon that is appropriate in the meaning of a part of the text. The source editions for citation are the Kangyur editions of Nartang (snar-thang) and Derge (sde-dge).

Keywords: Lamrim chenmo, Je Tsongkapa, lamrim, Geshe Thupten Pelsang, anthology, Tengyur, Buddhist sutras, Buddha's words, Narthang, Derge

Abstract: This research carries an interdisciplinary character. The problems of religious-philosophical anthropology are viewed in the context of transplantology. The Christian concepts of flash and sacrifice are selected for the analysis. Natural determinacy and freedom of will represent the two poles of countless religious-philosophical factors influencing the person’s choice of potential participation in organ donation programs. The article explores these piles based on the concepts of flash and sacrifice. The first concept is analyzed within the framework of the Christian anthropological thought (mostly Eastern Orthodox tradition), while the second one – in a broader context of Christian religious philosophy in relation to existential philosophy. The method of the phenomenology of religion is applied for identification and comprehension of the specific religious meanings, which comprise the content of the referred concepts and influence the formation of perception models of organ donation in the society. The author is first to examine the impact of the concepts of Christian anthropology upon a person’s decision regarding participation in the organ donation programs. The study also analyses the religious meanings within concepts of flash and sacrifice, which most likely may be viewed as the “pros and cons” arguments of participation of a Christian in transplant programs.

Keywords: religion and transplantology, organ donation, transplantology, religious and philosophical anthropology, Christian anthropology, concept of sacrifice, concept of flesh, interdisciplinary studies of man, death and resurrection, body and soul

Abstract:   This article explores the metaphysical and ontological topic of René Guénon’s discourse, gnoseological levels of cognition in his system, as well as his categorical apparatus: transcendentalities, universalities and categories. System-structural analysis of metaphysical, ontological and anthropological levels demonstrated that the metaphysical and ontological levels are characterized by the particular gnoseological levels of cognition; at the level of taxonometry they correlate with transcendentalities, in Guénon’s system pertain to the universal; their interrelation with the anthropological levels reveals such states as “universal” and “transcendent” human. Using the system-structural and hermeneutic methods, the author describes the concept of initiation, mechanism of its translation, such its criteria as “potentiality”, “virtuality” and “actualization”, as well as the concepts of “pseudo-initiation” and “counter-initiation”. The system-structural and comparative analysis illustrate the correlation between the initiations of “Lesser Mysteries” and unformed manifestation, gnoseological status “Ishwara-Vidya”, ontological level and “universal human”. It also demonstrated the correlation between initiations of “Great Mysteries” and Universal Opportunity, gnoseological status “Brahma-Vidya”, metaphysical level and “transcendent human”. System-structural analysis emphasized the difference of teleological approaches in initiatic and mystical paths: initiatic path is aimed at ultimate universalization of subject – liberation, while mystical always remains within the boundaries of the individual. Metaphysical and hermeneutic methods allowed determining universal nature of a symbol, its primacy with regards to the discourse. Comparative analysis reveals the identical symbolic structures in various traditions associated with initiation. The author compares the approach to initiation of René Guénon with the approach of Carl Jung, Mircea Eliade, Evgeny Torchinov and Stanislav Grof.  

Keywords: symbol, initiation, transcendence man, universal man, anthropology, Rene Guenon, integral traditionalism, lesser mysteries, great mysteries, metaphysics

Abstract: The subject of this research is the sacred viewed as the experiences in its earthly orientation, in other words – “religion only within the boundaries of faith”. The research is based on monism of the will, identifies as motive that historically precedes “human” and one that formed the latter. Sacredness in light of the accepted paradigm is considered as one of the (dialectical) poles of the will, taken by metaphysics for the Unified (Good), by ontology – for being (Spirit, being within itself, being of the Other, etc.). Such paradigm defines the methodology for this study; within its framework is conducted gradual reduction of the “religious” to the initial feeling (obsession); in the context of this state, initiated by scarification, the author examines ontology of the will in its structural similarity with the being. The scientific novelty is substantiated by reconstruction of the circumstances of genesis and analytics of mechanism of “containment” of social being; for the first time “sacred” is introduced as a transcendental (dialectical) paradigm, prefacing givenness of one or another form of existence-realization (subject-object relation) with fight strategy for the position-subject at “starting point” of self-conditionality (freedom).

Keywords: will-to-power, Other, transgression, duty, faith, being-to-death, will, sacred, Unified, own

Abstract: The subject of this research is the images of Islam and Christianity formed by the Orthodox theologians in the XIX century in the context of possibility for mutual dialogue. For a considerable time, the problem of Islamic-Christian dialogue has been viewed from various perspectives by the scholars and theologians. In Russia, it attains the character of a special phenomenon, called in a number of publications the “Orthodox-Islamic” relations (dialogue, conflict, and coexistence). Christianity and Islam coexist in the Russian territory for many centuries, having experienced both, antagonism and respectful coexistence. The author leans on the general scientific methods: comparative, systemic, and factor analysis. The topic is of religious tolerance is relevant to the present, since mutual acceptance creates a certain image that influence not only the worldview, but also the formation of political beliefs. The conclusion is made that the asserted by the government as a “primary and predominant” tradition in the territory of the Russian Empire Orthodox Church, on the one hand, expressed its tolerant attitude towards all non-Orthodox confessions, while on the other, especially within missionary circles, described the latter as hostile social forms. All attempts of the Russian Muslims to prove legitimacy and religious tolerance of Islam, faced opposition from a number of synodical authors, who preferred to see Islam as a “religion of fanatics”, demonstrating bellicose attitude towards the entire non-Islamic world.

Keywords: non-Orthodox faiths, Mohammedans, Muhammad, dialogue, Orthodoxy, Christianity, tradition, Islam, Orthodox conversion, tolerance

Abstract: The subject of this research is the phenomenon of mystical viewed in context of the history of religion and culture of mankind. Reference to the mystical experience attains special meaning at the current stage of civilizational development – the search for exiting the spiritual crisis. The “mystical” is typified as the “internal religion” opposite to the “external religion” – the religious cult and religious organization. Mysticism, being the inner part of religion, is identified with the most sacred knowledge and feelings o f a human being aimed at cognizing the Absolute. Mysticism is a conceptual core of the religious experience and the overall goal of any religious practice. Based on the conducted research, the author concludes that the evolution of religions took a path from magical to mystical. The magical (primal) religions are deprived of mystical beginning. The phenomenon of mystical occurs only within the national and world religions that recognize a human as a carrier of the absolute beginning. The peculiarity of current situation consists in the return to pre-mystical religious representations. The author determines the two types of mystical teachings – the immanent and the transcendent immanent. The importance of mystical religious first and foremost lies in development of the gnoseological abilities of a human being, and then in the revolutionary psychological transformations of mind and personality.

Keywords: external religion, mistical religion, magic religion, enlightened consciousness, egocentric consciousness, transcendent and immanent misticism, immanent misticism, Absolute, internal religion, transcendent religion

Abstract:   The subject of this research is the historical evolution of the three world religions – Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam. The author analyzed the development of these religions based on the model of religious cycle, which in his opinion, is common to the majority of historical religions, in other words, religious systems created after the invention of writing. In accordance with the author’s concept, each of the aforementioned religion has gone through six stages of development: initial, orthodox, classical, reformist, critical, and post-critical; as well as two types of crises – structural and system. The three methods are used in the course of this study: historical, comparative, and method of ascension from abstract to concrete. The main conclusion of the conducted research consists in the statement on the functional identity of historical development of Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam regardless of their doctrine of ritual practice. Author’s special contribution is defined by formulation of the abstract model of religious cycle that he applies to the evolution of the aforementioned religions.  

Keywords: Christianity, Buddhism, system crisis, structural crisis, sacred tradition, Holy Scriptures, religious cycle, evolution of religion, Islam, comparativist studies

Abstract: This article sets an objective of explicating the representations of Buddhists of the Gelug School about who is a philosopher, what is an accurate philosophical knowledge, its role and place in the soteriological system of Buddhism. The authors determine and analyze the key characteristics that define a Buddhist philosopher: “coming to refuge” of Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha; using as true argument (Tibetan –  rtags yang dag) for proper conclusion a reputable opinion (lung); acquisition of assurance in the true idea of Buddhist philosophy as a special form of doctrine through evidence; impartial (Tibetan – ma chags pa, chags med) attitude towards any ideas that blends with confidence in accuracy of the own opinion in such way that both, impartiality and confidence secure each other. The article provides an analysis of the process of philosophical cognition as an essential component of soteriological project of Buddhism. The work is conduced based on the referential Tibetan language sources viewed in the context of living tradition of the Central Asian Buddhism. The authors establish that a Buddhist philosopher of the Gelug tradition by the virtue of prasanga (Tibetan – thal ‘gyur; a particular type of conclusions proposed in response to the opponent’s assertion, due to which, leaning only upon the acknowledged by the opponent assertion, reveals its falsehood), as well as ordinary evidence form a median position of mind, and remaining within the framework of philosophy, solve the task of refuting the false representations. The established true representation and assurance in its validity, possess specific peculiarities that make them suitable for further application in the process of realization of the direct control over the final truth with help of the meditative techniques.

Keywords: education, scholasticism, Gelug, Mahayana, Buddhist philosophy, Tibetan Buddhism, debate, Prasangika, Madhyamaka, personality

Abstract: This work is dedicated to the examination of the Tibetan language sources on the confessional comparativism of Central Asian Buddhism. This direction of the traditional philosophical thought, having originated in India, received wide recognition in Tibet, particularly during the scholastic period of development of the Buddhist philosophy. It is mostly presented in the works of polemic character (dGag lan) dedicated to the discussion of contradictory moments in views of the main religious-philosophical schools of Buddhism, as well as historical-philosophical literature (grub mtha’) that provides a comparative-philosophical analysis of the philosophical schools of Indian Buddhism. The article is performed leaning on the referential Tibetan language sources viewed within the context of existing tradition of the Central Asian Buddhism. The research determined that the confessional Buddhism comparativism was responsible for the two key functions: propaedeutic and hermeneutic. The first implied that through the interpretation of simpler philosophical systems, the student was preparing for comprehending the more complex philosophical systems. The second solved the task of classification of the philosophical doctrines in accordance with how fully they reflect the concept of the Sermon of Buddha, which substantiated the supremacy of the own system over others. Theoretical space of the philosophical-religious doctrines of Buddhism was organized based on the principle of inclusivism, when the theoretical constructs of schools, so-called the “lowest”, were defines as incomplete and included into the general theoretical scheme of schools as the teachings that prepare adherers towards understanding of their own (complete) doctrine.

Keywords: hermeneutics, debate, scholasticism, history of philosophy, comparative analysis, Gelug, Tibetan Buddhism, Mahayana, Madhyamaka, propaedeutics

Abstract: The article is devoted to the consideration of the legend of the heavenly anointing oil of Thomas Becket, originated in the XIV century and used by the English kings to strengthen the prestige of their power. The author analyzes the content of the legend, its history, and connection with the cultural and religious tradition of this time, as well as its role in legitimizing the power of the rulers. The legend of the miraculous oil is explored in the context of other ideas about the sacred character of the monarchy, its place is determined in the system of corresponding representations and rituals. The study was carried out by analyzing a wide range of sources, including historical chronicles, texts of coronation services, the lives of saints, papal bulls, letters and other documents. The author concludes that in this legend several ideas about the sacralization of royal power are connected, it is the rite of royal unction, the cult of St. Thomas Becket, the French legend of the Holy Ampulla. The legend of the holy anointing oil was used twice to legitimize the power by the English kings Edward II and Henry IV, and played an important role in justifying the accession of the Lancaster dynasty.

Keywords: Thomas Becket, holy anointing oil, unction, coronation, legend, legitimation of power, sacralization of power, Henry IV, royal dignity, history of religion

Abstract: The subject of this study is the emotions of the higher level, (or altruistic emotions like loving kindness, compassion, joy, equal attitude to all and bliss) that are symbolically designated in Buddhist tantric texts. The object of this research is Buddhist tantric literature that contains information on the structure of the emotional sphere of a person. On the basis of the original Tibetan sources (the Vajrabhairava and Vajrasattva sadhanas), the basis of a Buddhist mandala has been shown where five innate structures of the consciousness are symbolized. These structures are characterized in three aspects: the male aspect, the female aspect and the structural aspect – that of belonging to a certain “great element” (mahabhūta). The research has shown that these texts contain symbolic information on the process of purifying the mind. The nature of the emotions of higher level, i.e. of altruistic emotions, is shown as identical to the deep nature of consciousness. Impulses of the altruistic emotions occur in everyday life of an ordinary person alongside impulses of the egoistic emotions (ignorance, desire, anger, pride/greed, envy that are inseparable with human physiology). The research shows that the impulses of the altruistic emotions become values that are cultivated in the process of the self-education, self-perfection of a personality and acquiring real inner freedom. The process of purifying the mind that is symbolized in the Buddhist mandala reflects the ontological basis of the Buddhist ethics.

Keywords: soteriological values, four immeasurable perfections, shila-paramita, purification of the mind, great elements, nectars, antecedent structures of the mind, mandala, Buddhist Tantra, Buddhist ethics

Abstract: The subject of this research is laughter as a religious phenomenon. An attempt is made to analyze the symbolic value of laughter in religious practices and myths, as well as determine the role and place of laughter in religious experience of a man. The connection between the laughter and religious can be vividly traced in the phenomenon of ritual laughter, separate aspects of laughter culture of the Ancient and Medieval times alongside the myths of mass culture of modern society. This article interprets laughter as interlink between the sacred and the profane clusters of being, or in other words, hierophany. Examination of laugher as a religious phenomenon is conducted from the perspective of phenomenology, primarily hermeneutic-phenomenological method of M. Eliade: his concepts of crypto-religion and homo religiousus. The selected methodological approach allows assessing the role and value of laughter in the field of religious experience of a modern man from the new perspective. Special importance this problem gains in light of the new (postmodern) religiousness and mass culture: active processes of neo-mythologization of consciousness, establishment of laughter as the key aesthetic principle chance the boundaries between the sacred and the secular.

Keywords: postmodernism, mythological consciousness, culture of humour, ritual laughter, religious experience, laughter, phenomenology of religion, religious phenomenon, new religiousness, theology of laughter

Abstract: Based on the Tibetan Buddhist scholastic literature, this article examines the approaches towards determination of personality in the Hindu Orthodox and non-Orthodox religious-philosophical schools. The work reviews the terms that serve as a personality marker (in the texts of sutra and schastra), as well as analyzed its main definitions. Significant attention is given to the analysis of the non-Buddhist views upon personality, as (1) constant, (2) single, and (3) independent. Argumentation of the Buddhists who criticized such views is revealed. The author determines that Buddhism in contradiction to the thesis of “heterodoxy” teachings regarding the presence of selfishness (Tibetan bdag) of personality, proposes the statement about in unselfishness (Tibetan bdag med), and provides analysis of interpretations of this notion in various Buddhist schools. This research in methodological aspect is built on the analysis of reference texts in the context of living philosophical-religious tradition of Buddhism. The conclusion is made that the denial of selfishness of personality in Buddhism must be understood on the context of polemic of Buddhism with the non-Buddhist religious-philosophical traditions. Objections of the Buddhists are aimed not against the personal principle as such, but rather erroneous in their opinion understanding of personality as the subject of liberation, developed in Orthodox and non-Orthodox Hindu spiritual traditions.

Keywords: Madhyamaka, Scholasticism, Tibetan philosophy, the Gelug, identity, personality, Buddhism, Mahayana, Buddhistic soteriology, Dharma

Abstract: The subject of this research is the Kabbalah as the most well-known mystical tradition of Judaism. It is studied in the context of comparative analysis of the philosophical-mystical traditions of the world in accordance with the three fundamental positions: 1) Essence of the Absolute and the character of mystical contact with Him; 2) Correlation between the ideal and phenomenal (material) being; 3) Methods of mystical psychopractice. The article carries out a comparative analysis of the ideas of Kabbalah and other immanent mystical traditions of the world, primarily Tantrism, Advaita Vedanta, and Buddhism. Kabbalah represents an immanent pantheistic integrative mystical tradition. The Absolute is being viewed as the Wholeness, which exists by the principle “everything in one, one in everything”. Through the mystical “closeness” (Devekut) with the Absolute (Ein Sof) the egocentric consciousness is being overcome, and the global unitotality achieved. The main methods of the psychopractice of Kabbalah consist in love and trust, meditative contemplation of the Absolute, psychosomatic exercise, and disciplinary asceticism. Such psychopractive actively uses the energy cores of a person (Sephiroth). As a result, the transformation of consciousness (enlightenment) is achieved.  

Keywords: Devekut, psychopractice, integrative tradition, immanent mysticism, enlightened consciousness, egocentric consciousness, Kabbalah, Absolute, Sephiroth, Ein-Sof

Abstract: The object of this research is the angelological concept of René Descartes, as well as the doctrine about spirits of the reformation theologians Balthasar Bekker and Henry Bowman.  The subject of this research is the ideas about nature and functions of the angels and demons formulated by these thinkers in the context of the fundamental positions of Cartesianism. The author examines how the methodology of Descartes was used by Bekker and Bowman for the purpose of repudiation of the Christian doctrine about spirits of Medieval Times. The scientific novelty consists in the fact that this research examines a philosophical-theological aspect of Cartesianism, which remains unstudied within the Russian science, namely the outlook of Descartes upon spirits and the influence of his doctrine on the teachings of the reformation theologians pertaining to this topic. The author makes the conclusion that Descartes’ metaphysics became the key instrumentfor Bekker and Bowman, who used it to destroy the traditional beliefs in angels and demons, despite the intention of Descartes to remain faithful to the doctrine of the Catholic Church. At the same time, we can observe a connection between such development of Caertesianism (Bekker, Bowman) and their belonging to Protestantism.

Keywords: Protestantism, Cartesianism, collegiants, Baltasar Becker, Rene Descartes, demons, spirits, angels, demonology, Enlightenment

Abstract: This article is dedicated to the issue of purpose and predestination of a person in the works of the founders of the Protestant movement in Christianity – Martin Luther and John Calvin, as well as their followers. Their ideas laid the foundation for a new outlook not only on Christian religion, but also on a man as the central object of religious views. Based on the idea of philosophical anthropology, the author attempts to more objectively examine the origins of Protestant outlook on predestination of a man and individual, and in accordance with this idea, present the concept of salvation of the soul. Characterizing the components of the issue of human predestination, the author attempts to reveal the spiritual and material aspects of becoming of a true Christian (homo Christianus) within the perception of the Protestant Church. The novelty of this research consists in a comprehensive examination of this issue. On the basis of analysis of the works of Protestant ideologists – Martin Luther, John Calvin, Jacob Boehme, and Philipp Melanchthon, the author explores the doctrine of predestination, the issue of self-cognition and human cognition of God, essence of a man as an instrument in the hand of God.

Keywords: homo christianus, salvation, destination, predestination, John Calvin, Martin Luther, Protestantism, knowledge, Reformation, religion

Abstract: The object of study is the religious culture as a form of culture. The author examines religious culture as a phenomenon of culture rather, than an epiphenomenon of religion. He allocates such types of religious culture as: traditionalism, utilitarianism, creativism. In his vision of such destructive phenomenon as religious extremism is semantic attribute of traditionalist religious culture. Partially it is overcome in utilitarianism and removed in the religious culture of creativism. Algorithm development of religious culture presented by the author as a dialectic triad, where the thesis is religious culture of traditionalism, antithesis is religious culture of utilitarianism and synthesis is religious culture of creativism.The methodology of research represents a synthesis of such research procedures as: method of semantic and axiological reduction, in which the researcher cutting off external formal aspects of religious culture explicates their internal informative value-semantic characteristics; and method of ideal typing, aiming at the construction of mental models of religious culture, to serve as its tools of cognition.Scientific novelty and originality consists in development of culturology approach to the study of religious culture, aimed at identifying some general types of religious culture. Use as a tool for cultural study generated by the author of the typological triad: traditionalism, utilitarianism, creativism, allows you: to debunk the widespread tendency for categorizing of such destructive phenomenon as religious extremism as attribute of any concrete-historical religion; to identify universal for different religions, the semantics of this destructive phenomenon; to develop certain universal semantic antidotes to semantically neutralized this phenomenon. The author puts forward the idea that semantic antidote traditionalism is utilitarianism, shook traditionalism revived extremism and terrorism, suppressing these destructive phenomena is carried out within the framework of creativism, to eliminate the opposition of traditionalism and utilitarianism.

Keywords: religiya, tsennosti, smysly, tsennostno-smyslovaya reduktsiya, traditsionalizm, utilitarizm, kreativizm

Abstract: The purpose of the article is to trace back peculiarities of the concept of mana based on the historical references created as a result of development of the anthropology of religion in the XIXth - XXth centuries and to describe specific features of this phenomenon thereupon. For this purpose, Bychenkova suggests that the following tasks should be solved: to define mana as the primitive religious concept, to describe the role of mana in the development of the relationship between magic and religion and to consider the possibility to classify the belief in mana as the 'minimum religion'. The thematic justification is determined by the significance of identifying primitive concepts and beliefs as the primary religious systems as well as the importance of interpreting the belief in mana from the point of view of the anthropology of religion. The subject of the research is the analysis of preanimistic beliefs in the anthropology of religion. Methodological basis of the research. In her research Bychenkova has used general scientific methods such as systems approach, dialectics, analysis, synthesis, abstraction, generalization, extrapolation, modelling, analogy, induction and deduction; methods of religious research such as causal analysis, historicism (genetic approach and comparative historical research), typological method, phenomenological method, hermeneutical method and structure-function analysis. The scientific novelty of the article is caused by the following: the author 1) has summarized different kinds of preanimistic beliefs found in literature as well as their names in different cultures; 2) has described the archetype of impersonal foce in the Ancient World beliefs; 3) has described the archetypes of mana in folk religions and artwork; 4) has offered the Russian translation of extracts from such works as Codrington Robert H. The Melanesians: Studies in Their Anthropology and Folk-lore; Durkheim E. The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life; Jones William. The Algonkin Manitou; McGee W. J. (William John). The Siouan Indians; Marett R. R. Anthropology; Radin Paul. Religion of the North American Indians. The conclusion of the research is that belief in impersonal force spread all over the world can be viewed as one of the historically initial forms religious beliefs. Developed religions do not completely overcome the concept of impersonal force but involve it as one of the components of a new, more complicated system of beliefs. The facts provided in the course of the analysis prove that ancient beliefs in impersonal force are still present in the form of archetype in later religions, thus defining many important components of mythological and religious consсience and even public conscience in general.  

Keywords: anthropology of religion, primitive beliefs, minimum religion, mana, impersonal force, North American Indians, animatism, magic, taboo, preanimatism

Abstract: In the 17th century memorials of other confessions made a great impact on the development of Orthodox book-publishing in Rzeczpospolita and Moscovia and were one of the factors of the development of confessional identity of Orthodox Christians. The influence of Protestantism that prevailed at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries was replaced with the impact of Roman Catholic theology by the middle of the 17th century brought to Mosow by Kiev orthodox intellectuals and books. Orthodox bookmen adapted texts of other confessions to Orthodox tradition and used numerous editing methods and techniques. These methods are analyzed by the author of the article using the example of 'The Large Catechism' published by an activist of the 'brotherly movement' in Rzeczpospolita Lavrentiy Zizaniy Tustanovskiy (Moscow, 1627), 'Man's Peace with God' by an archmandrite of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra Innokenty Gizel (Kiev, 1669) and 'The Crown of Faith' by a Belorusian theologist Symeon Polotsky. The methodological basis of the research involves the confessionalization concept (Konfessionalisierung) introduced by the German historical school (E.W. Zeeden, H. Schilling) and the concept of 'polymorphous' Orthodox culture of the late 16th - early 18th centuries offered by an Italian researcher Giovanna Brogi Bercoff. The author of the article also emphasizes the influence of 'external', i.e. non-Orthodox memorials on the development of Orthodox confessional identity of the 17th century. However, the author refers to the identity that can be reconstructed based on the analysis of the memorials of Orthodox book-publishing. According to the author, the fact that 'external' non-Orthodox sources were widely used can be a proof that Kiev (to a greater extent) and Moscow (to a lesser extent) Orthodox Christians of the 17th century were at the stage of searching for their confessional image and that image was finally developed as a result of the creative dialogue between Orthodoxy and other confessions. 

Keywords: Lavrentiy Zizaniy Tustanovskiy, Rzeczpospolita, Russia, borrowings from other confessions, Orthodox books, confessionalization, Innokenty Gizel, Symeon Polotsky, Evfimiy Chudovskiy, confessional identity

Abstract: In her article Trofimova examines the problems of humanim and religion on the pages of the American 'Religious Humanism' Journal. In her research Trofimova focuses on the 1970 - 1980s of the XXth century because it was the time when liberal religious views of different theologists and secular philosophers of the late XIXth - early XXth centuries revived and were revised. Those views covered such issues as the essence and nature of religion, human and the meaning of his existence, the relationship between humanism and religion, the place of religion in the changing world and so on. This article is the first one in the academic literature to analyze the main philosophical and theological theoretical issues raised by theologists with different views and beliefs on the pages of the journal. The articles published in the journal reflect the two tendencies in the development of religious-humanistic theories: the attempt to create a 'new' religion of the humanity that would interwine religious concepts and humanistic ideas, on the one hand, and the commitment to traditional religious beliefs. The results of the analysis of the ideas of modern religious humanists demonstrate the heterogeneity of philosophical and religious movements in the USA. 

Keywords: religion without God, atheism, morals, secular humanism, religious humanism, Unitarianism, humanism, religion, religion in the USA, secular

Abstract: The subject of the present article is the thesis on ‘naturality’ of religion offered by cognitive religious studies. The main idea is that religion is a resulting function of ordinary cognitive processes and therefore exists at the two parallel levels of conceptualization of religious concepts. The first level is presented by complex and abstract notions relevant to doctrinal formulas of particular religious traditions while the second level consists of simple and ‘incorrect’ (from the doctrinal point of view) notions expressing natural tendencies of our thinking and constituting ‘natural religion’. Analyzing the formation and development of the concept of ‘natural religiosity’ in cognitive religious studies, the authors define the methodological and heuristic potential of the concept and offer a definition of ‘natural religion’ from the point of view of cognitive paradigm. Introduction of the concept of ‘natural religiosity’ reveals new opportunities for experimental researches of the processes of formation and transformation of religious notions and allows to deal with the question about the relation between religious and atheistic world views at a new level. The idea of ‘natural religion’ also seems to be quite useful. It is used as an important heuristic instrument in comparative researches describing the phenomenon of ‘people’s’ religion and explaining digressions from the official teaching of this or that religious tradition.

Keywords: cognitive religious studies, natural religion, religiosity, intuitive ontology, genesis of religious concepts, counter intuitivity, theological inaccuracy, super-natural concepts, anthropomorphism, agent.

Abstract: The subject studied in the present article is the correspondence of a philologist Emil Staiger and philosopher Martin Heidegger discussing Eduard Morike’s poem ‘To a Lamp’. The author of the article focuses on both the poem and different interpretations of the poem offered by Heidegger and Staiger and methodological grounds of the difference in their interpretations. Analyzing the difference in interpretation techniques used by Heidegger and Staiger, the author describes the difference between philosophical and philological approaches to a literary text in general. To analyze the difference in Heidegger’s and Staiger’s interpretations of the poem, the author uses not only the method of comparative analysis but also a hermeneutic insight into intentions of each interpreter. The scientific novelty of the research is in viewing this particular discussion between Heidegger and Staiger as the part of a wider discussion between the two branches of science that have different strategies of interpreting poetic works. Trying to be objective in her analysis of each researcher’s position, the author of the article, however, arrives to a conclusion that Heidegger’s interpretation was closer to the true poetic meaning of the poem studied.

Keywords: Heidegger, Staiger, Morike, ‘To a Lamp’, Goethe, lucet, videtur, style, ‘the art of interpretation’, phenomenology.

Abstract: The bishop of Alexandria Athanasius the Great was famous only as a theologian but also a successor to the tradition of Apologists who taught Christianity to pagans. All scientists who study the history of Christianity speak highly of St. Athanasius’ activity. The author of the present article studies philosophical grounds of the classification of religious worships and substantiations of polytheism provided in ‘Orations Against Hellenes’ of St. Athanasius the Great. Oratio contra gentes is not only a polemic but also educating work by St. Athanasius. In his speech the theologian tried to find the reason why people estranged from the natural knowledge of God. He believed that the reason was in people’s attraction to sensuality. However, St. Athanasius believed that the moral decay is not only in one’s estrangement from observing spiritual reality but in one’s focus on himself. The author of the present research article shows how St. Athanasius’ views developed from the basic concepts to the classification of diversified forms of the polytheistic cult and myth. Therefore, St. Athanasius can be considered the founder of the philosophy of religion in the history of Christianity.

Keywords: Athanasius the Great, philosophy of religion, paganism, polytheism, pantheism, contra gentes, Christianity, Patristics, Hellenism, school of Alexandria.

Abstract: The article is devoted to the main parameters of traditional spirituality in opposition to post-traditional (modernistic and post-modernistic) spirituality. Methods used by the author in his research are based on theological principles of the Traditional School. From this point of view, the author compares the term ‘tradition’ to the term ‘religion’ and formulates the conditional definition of ‘traditional religion’ as well as describes the main features of traditional religion from the point of view of ontology.

Keywords: philosophy, tradition, religion, desacralization, Post-Modernism, sacred, succession, ritual, transcendence, initiation.

Abstract: The article is devoted to the influence of ancient philosophy on evolution of the early concept of the trinity offered by Augustine of Hippo (354–430). The early version of Augustine’s trinity doctrine which was in many ways influenced by Neo-Platonism metaphysics had two branches: philosophical anagogy that described gradual elation of soul from the sensible world to the world of the infinite Mind and freshless Truth and ontology of the Trinity that view each item created by God as having the three base characteristics (unity, form, order and etc.). The early version of Augustine’s doctrine of the Trinity was created under the influence of Neo-Platonic metaphysic and psychology and Aristotle logics and the theory of knowledge and speech. Later this concept developed into a mature «psychological theory» of the Trinity. According to that theory, the internal life of the Divine Trinity can be understood similarly with the structure of individual consciousness of human soul or «trinity cogito».

Keywords: Ancient philosophy, religion, Christianity, patristic, theology, trinity doctrine, Neo-Platonism, Aristotelianism, metaphysics, psychology.

Abstract: The author of the article discusses the traditional system of values aimed at acquiring, preservation and augmentation of energy and life force. Common sense advice, social rules and religious rituals are usually developed in the traditional culture according to the aforesaid system of values which the author calls ‘energy paradigm’. The force acquaints us with the sacral and creates roots in existence. The phenomenon of energy paradigm is viewed based on the example of Tamil culture where the phenomenon was represented by such aspects of culture as the concept of energy named Anangu (Shakti in later years), sacrifice rituals, experience of cross-cousin marriages, rituals of women’s fasting Nonbu, Tamils’ attitudes to suffering, giving, love and faithfulness. In Tamil culture where a woman is believed to be the personification of Shakti special attention is paid at chastity of women which directs her energy in the right direction. It is typical for Tamil myths and social practices to focus on energy interactions between supernatural being in myths, between people and gods in cults, between people in the society and between human and natural forces as well as man-made objects.

Keywords: philosophy, energy, pragmatism, Tamil culture, sacrifice, chastity, sacral, myth, ritual, cross-cousin marriage.

Abstract: The article is devoted to the philosophical and theological interpretation of the fundamental Holy Trinity dogma. It is shown that philosophical methodology allows to expand the borders of knowledge and to raise accuracy. The latter allows to conduct analysis of sufficiency of sources and grounds of Orthodox Dogmatics. The author of the article also shows that the presence of the two sources at once, Holy Bible and Apostolic Holy Tradition creates contradictions for the main Holy Trinity Dogma. There should be the three sources of Dogmatics. Using the complementary principle, the author shows that the third source should include the Words said by Jesus Christ when alive. Such source can be the Sermon on the Mount or Gospel of Thomas.

Keywords: philosophy, theology, dogma, Holy Trinity, trinity, knowledge, methodology, grounds, sources, Sermon on the Mount, Gospel According to Thomas.

Abstract: Teaching about ‘middle knowledge’ says that God has a special kind of knowledge which allows Him to now not only what a person would do under these or those circumstances but also to know what a person would actually do. The teaching was introduced by Louis de Molina in the 16th century. The fullest theory was suggested by Dekker. The author provides counter arguments for some aspects of Dekker’s theory about ‘middle knowledge’. All these counter arguments can be all reduced to the following ideas: 1) teaching about middle knowledge is not an adequate solution of the omniscience issue because it uses a very problematic interpretation of free will based on the principle of alternative possibilities; 2) quietism assumes that God exists outside time, but in such context the middle knowledge does not exist, either; 3) teaching about middle knowledge is excessive because there is another, more economic theory, that claims to solve this problem (Severinus Boethuis teaching about forecasting, prophesy and free will).

Keywords: philosophy, Middle Knowledge, forecasting, prediction, Quietism, future, contingency, free will, alternatives, Louis de Molina.

Abstract: The article analyzes the public discussions on religious freedom at the turn of the 19th — 20th centuries. The author of the article gives a brief description of legislation in the sphere of religion and traces back actualization of such terms as ‘freedom of conscience’, ‘religious tolerance’, freedom of belief’, ‘religious freedom’, and etc. The author reconstructs the public polemics on religious freedom and describes different approaches to it. In his study the author uses the method of a c omparative analysis and t ypologization. The author concludes that there were no clear and common understanding of questions related to religious freedom at the end of the 19th — beginning of the 20th in Russia. The author shows the poly semantic nature of all terms related to religious freedom. The most controversial is the question about the ‘freedom of conscience’. The author defines the four basic interpretations of this term: 1) freedom of conscience is equal to the freedom of choice of the world view; 2) freedom of conscience does not relate to the sphere of legislation because it is a philosophical and theological idea meaning a) freedom from the sin; b)freedom of the thought and dogmatic beliefs; c)free will; 3) freedom of conscience is interpreted as a propaganda of atheism; 4)freedom of conscience is a meaningless term and we should refuse from using it.

Keywords: philosophy, religion, f reedom, consciousness, tolerance, religious tolerance, confession, pre-revolutionary, Russia, Soloviev.

Abstract: The Mother of God is treated with much respect in the land around Suzdal. Many churches there have been built in Her name and She is believed to be the protector of the Vladimir-Suzdal region. Since Vladimir Monomakh built there the first stone Cathedral of the Assumption of Mother of God and the Monastery of the Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple in early 12th century, Suzdal became an architectural implementation of the sacral symbol ‘Town of the Mother of God’ which is also proved by the fact that many churches dedicated to the Mother in God have been built there later. Holidays of the theotokion cycle and churches dedicated to those, - such as Birth, Presentation in the Temple, Annunciation, Assumption, Holy Protection have successively elaborated the idea of protection of Suzdal land and its citizens by the Mother of God.

Keywords: cultural studies, Suzdal, town, temple, Mother of God, Annunciation, Assumption, Holy Protection, symbol, auspices.

Abstract: Abstract: the article considers the issue of a certain philosopher representing the core of the Russian philosophy. According to the author, such a representative of the Russian philosophy is F. M. Dostoevsky. The author analyzed the origins of the opposite opinion that Solovyev, Berdyaev and Shpet were the three people representing our philosophy. It is also shown that Dostoevsky’s ideas influenced Einstein when he created his relativist physics as well as the

Keywords: philosophy, Russian philosophy, Dostoevsky, Solovyev, Berdyaev, Shpet, Einstein, relativistic physics, devil, legend.