Abstract: The subject of the study is the evolution of protectionist policy, including key stages and trends in historical and analytical contexts. Protectionism is one of the key tools used by governments to control and protect the national economy. It is applied both to ensure economic security and to support key industries. The historical-political analysis of the concept of protectionism is particularly relevant after the emergence of asymmetric security threats caused by international factors, which led to the return of protectionist practices after decades of globalization, economic liberalization, and trade policy implementation. During the formation of the foreign trade strategy based on protectionist principles, mercantilism served as the theoretical foundation. Accordingly, the aim of the study is to provide a comprehensive analysis of key historical stages and trends in the formation and development of the concept of protectionism. The research is based on the comprehensive application of various scientific methods, such as logical, comparative, structural analysis, synthesis, and historical analysis. A key methodological principle is the integration of theoretical and practical aspects, which determines the direction and content of the analytical work. To achieve the research objective, the main methodological approaches have been applied, including the dialectical method, retrospective analysis, and systemic analysis. The analysis of the evolution of mercantilist ideas allows for the conclusion that there has been a shift in protectionist policy from the use of monetary tools to those that stimulate domestic production and exports. Protectionism is actively applied in conditions of economic instability. However, the transition to trade liberalization occurs when the economic situation stabilizes and the level of development increases. At the same time, free trade may be accompanied by the use of hidden forms of protectionism. Despite forecasts from some experts that protectionist policies would gradually lose relevance in the context of globalization, it has not only persisted but has also successfully integrated into the new economic reality. The article proposes an author's definition of the concept of "protectionism," based on the results of a retrospective analysis of protectionism as a policy consisting of a set of tools aimed at supporting the economy of the state.

Keywords: restrictions, tariffs, nationalism, national industry, economic security, international trade, state economic policy, trade liberalization, protectionism, mercantilism

Abstract: The object of the research is the fundamental work of the famous Russian scientist of the first half of the XIX century K. I. Arsenyev "Statistical essays of Russia". The author provides a brief overview of the content of each of the essays. Special attention is paid to a detailed analysis of the history of the reforms of administrative-territorial division and public administration in the Russian Empire described in the work under study. All the changes that took place in this area from the beginning of the reign of Peter I to the middle of the XVIII century are considered in detail. Various decrees, instructions and other official acts on the management of regions are given and their significance is analyzed. The process of changes in the territorial structure of the Russian Empire and their causes are analyzed. The article highlights the division of the country into spaces proposed by Arsenyev, taking into account natural and economic characteristics. The methodology of the work is based on the principles of historicism, reliability and scientific character. A historical-comparative approach and theoretical methods such as analysis, synthesis and generalization were used. Based on a detailed study and analysis of the works of K. I. Arsenyev and especially his most famous work "Statistical Sketches of Russia", a conclusion was made about the undoubted historical and scientific value of his scientific heritage. The study of his work allows us to trace how the administrative-territorial division of Russia was improved from the beginning of the XVIII to the middle of the XIX century and state policy was changing in order to optimally manage a centralized state. Analyzing the historical decrees cited by Arsenyev, it can be concluded that the main goals of the regional policy of the empire were the political and economic integration of the country, the establishment of its social, legal and administrative homogeneity, but taking into account regional peculiarities. It should also be emphasized that the division of the territory into spaces proposed by Arsenyev was the basis for further formation of zoning ideas. Conclusions are drawn about the importance of Arsenyev's works for the subsequent development of the national school of zoning and regional management.

Keywords: reforming the administrative division, Regional management, spaces, domestic school of zoning, provinces, State regional policy, Arsenyev Konstantin Ivanovich, administrative-territorial division, The Russian Empire, Statistical essays of Russia

Abstract: This article analyzes the legal views of one of the most interesting and original philosophers of the law from the last quarter of the twentieth century to the beginning of the twenty-first century and Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, V.S. Nersesyants. His legal ideas are rooted in ancient philosophy and German idealistic philosophy. Therefore, comparing his legal views with those of the Hegelian philosophy of law, taking into account both Nersesyants' dissertations, is traditional for contemporary connoisseurs of the theory of law. However, as the experience of a more detailed and in-depth analysis shows, interesting points of similarity of his ideas are also connected with other representatives of the German intellectual and philosophical culture of thinking about law. It is the understanding of the nature of the successive and new aspects in Nersesyants' system of legal views that can serve as the basis for the development of his legal views in modern topical and prospective studies. The scientific novelty of the conducted research of Nersesyants's philosophical and legal heritage consists of some significant clarifications of the nature of his ideas, clarifying their connection with the ideas of Hegelian philosophy and the teachings of I. Kant, I. Fichte, G. Mehmel, as well as the later ideas of the neo-Kantian lawyer R. Stammler. At the same time, comparing Nersesyants' legal views and the interpretation of the law in G. Mehmel's Pure Doctrine of Law allows us to present Nersesyants' theory of law as an original version of this doctrine. The article also points to the inexplicability of the concept of justice in Nersesyants' philosophy of law and promising studies of social theory as a prerequisite for the socio-practical doctrine of civilization.

Keywords: legal libertarianism, civilism, law and legislative act, legal neo-Kantianism, german idealistic philosophy, justice, concept of law, Nersesyants, history of legal thought, dialectics of the legal form

Abstract: The object of this research is the problem of power and society in the political ontology. The indicated problem is viewed in the works of the founder of political philosophy in Russia Y. F. Samarin in the context of teaching of the representatives of “Moscow School”. An attempt is made to demonstrate the multidimensionality of the philosopher’s key ideas and avoid their simplifications and distortions. The evolution of Samarin’s philosophical-political views is described: the initial stage of this writings is focused on the eschatological pursuits, the take roots in the Russian spiritual culture and are associated with the ideas of transformed power, grateful type of being; the next period is concentrated on the ida of national policy, when the power must originate with people, strengthen the interethnic unity and serve to the historical calling of Russia, rather that the distracted political beginning. The analysis of Samarin’s views on power led to the following conclusions: the philosopher believed that it is essential to respect boundaries between the church and state life, but underlines the need of spiritual influence upon the power; each new form of power had to comply with the organic social development, be generated by it, rather than be created artificially or borrowed; the government should lean on the enlightened nation, rather than on cosmopolitan leadership. It is claimed that Samarin’s political position – the “revolutionary conservatism”, which essence consists not in destruction, but construction of the state supported by spiritual culture of Russia and peculiarities of its national pattern, but at the same time in uncompromised antagonism to everything impeding well-being the superpower. It is concluded that the political ontology of Y. F. Samaring and classical Slavophiles became the foundation for philosophical-political constructs of the thinkers of Silver Age and white émigré. Some of his ideas may become the foundation for political ideology of modern Russia.

Keywords: anti-Normanist theory, legal law, moral law, folk, state, power, national politics, political ontology, revolutionary conservatism, Slavophiles

Abstract: This article examines the phenomenon of American paleoconservatism in the Russian historiography, as well as provides an analytical overview of scientific publications on the problems of evolution of American conservatism of the late XX century that touches upon the questions of ideological establishment and political influence of paleoconservatism in the United States. Paleoconservatism represents a nontrivial version of the modern American conservatism, which is opposite to the mainstream forms of conservatism (for example, neoconservatism), but leans on the fundamental American principles, as an ideological defender of the tradition and freedom. The problem of paleoconservatism in Russian historiography is viewed by the representatives of various scientific directions: historians-Americanologists, political scientists, experts in the area of jurisprudence, etc. However, within the Russians science the phenomenon of American paleoconservatism is studied fragmentarily. The problems of committed genealogy, historical development and ideological evolution of American paleoconservatism remain poorly studied. The political writings and views of the key theoreticians and representatives of paleoconservatism – P. Gottfried, P. Brimelow, S. Francis, etc. Nevertheless, the political potential of paleoconservative ideology, which combines the principles of retention of the tradition and inviolability of freedom, is evident in modern world. The demand of political ideas of American paleoconservatists and paleoconservative discourse outside the United States underlines the need for further research of this ideological and political phenomenon.

Keywords: fusionism, history of conservatism, political ideology, historiography, freedom, tradition, american conservatism, paleoconservatism, Old Right, traditionalism

Abstract: The object of this article is the implicit cognitive processes; the subject is the methodology of application of implicit cognitivistics in political science. The goal of this work consists in conceptualization of the research method of the cognitive-ideological matrices using the scientific approaches of implicit cognitivistics. Analysis of the theories of implicit cognitivistics and narratology from the classical to postclassical allows generalizing the methodology of research of the implicit phenomena and processes, as well as assess its heuristic potential and restrictions in application. Special attention is given to the insufficiently studies, both in Russia and abroad, topic of the implicit cognitive processes in the subject field of the political science. The provided original methods of research of the implicit cognitive processes were examined from the perspective of their possible use in the area of studying ideologies. The result of the work became the conceptualization of the new integral approach based on the implicit-cognitivist and narrative methodology that allows operationalizing the concept of “cognitive-ideological matrices”, and the assessment of its potential application in the political practice. The acquired scientific results are valuable in the area of studying the ideological identity, determination and quantification of its individual and group characteristics, as well as the analysis of attitudes and political orientations of various actors, based on the subjective perception of social and political phenomena and processes.

Keywords: implicit association test, Narrative Policy Framework, attitudes, ideology, cognitive-ideological matrix, implicit cognitivistics, explicit cognitivistics, narratology, modeling of cognitive processes, ideological identity

Abstract: Currently, the majority of political leaders and practical executives claim rationality as a universal, generally accepted language of communication between the subjects involved into the political process. Political rationality underlies the formation of the diverse cognitive constructs that reveal the nature of development of the political realm. The basic categories and concepts of the originally emerged classical ideology of liberalism have been grounded on the principles of rationalism. The article examines the precise rational principles that formed the ideology of early liberalism. Analysis of the problem of rational in the indicated ideology is conducted on the basis of the historical-genetic approach, in combination with the principle of contextualization. This allows viewing the establishment of ideological trend under the influence of sociopolitical, cultural and intellectual context of the covered timeframe. The scientific novelty lies in determination and analysis of the problem of rational in classical political ideology of liberalism. The achieved results will be helpful; in further research of the transformation of rational principles, as well as analysis of the modern political realm regarding the possibility of application of classical liberal ideological concepts and categories.

Keywords: utilitarianism, reason, liberty, individualism, age of Enlightenment, rationality, ideology, liberalism, progress, French revolution

Abstract: This article considers the insufficiently studied problem of the rational in political ideologies. The author provides definitions to the notions of rational and ideology in political discourse, as well as meticulously examines the problem of rational in the originated liberal, social and conservative concepts. The timeframe covered in the research includes the end of the XVIII – beginning of the XIX centuries. The author is convinced that the problem of rationality is one of the crucial and simultaneously the most unexplored aspects of study of the political ideologies. Thus, it necessitate the development of critical view upon the comprehension of rational in political ideologies. The article conducts a comparative analysis of the rational in ideologies of liberalism, conservatism, and socialism of the indicated period. The main conclusion consist in the proof that all of the political ideologies in their essence are rational. But it worth emphasizing that the liberal and social concepts were built within the framework of classical type of rationality, unlike the evolvement of conservative ideology.

Keywords: French Revolution, Age of Enlightenment, Philosophy, Politics, Socialism, Conservatism, Liberalism, Ideology, Rationality, Rational

Abstract: This article examines the most relevant interpretations of the phenomenon of mass society contained in the political-philosophical discourse of the XX-XXI centuries. The goal of the research lies in revealing the distinctness of each concept, as well as give assessment to the completeness of interpretation of the problem of mass society and relevance of the theoretical-methodological means applied by the authors of the compared concepts. Attention is centered around on the analysis of the problem of mass society within the conceptual field of Frankfurt School of Social Research (T. Adorno) on one hand, and the system of philosophical approaches towards the problem described in the book by José Ortega y Gasset “The Revolt Of The Masses” – on the other. The applied in the article historical and comparative approaches, in combination with the hermeneutic analysis, serve the purpose to demonstrate the dependence of the in-depth understanding of a subject from the level of consideration of the cultural-historical substantiation of the modern references to the problem of mass society; within its framework, takes place the discourse-analysis of the corresponding theoretical angles. The scientific novelty lies primarily in comparison of the various directions of disciplinary grasp of the topic at hand. Namely the results of such comparison manifest as the foundation for the system of the implemented in the work approaches and methods. The outcome of this research is the achievement of the historically profound and philosophically multifaceted comprehension of the phenomenon of modern mass society.

Keywords: perspectivism, invidividuality, transdicsiplinarity, late capitalism, Frankfurt School, social atomism, mass society, political subjectivity, creativity, expert society

Abstract: The object of this research is the sociopolitical concept of P. N. Tkachev. The object is Tkachev’s idea about the driving force of revolution. Special attention is given to the thinker’s opinion regarding the revolutionary potential of the Russian peasantry and its role in the process of social reforms. The author examines Tkachev’s idea of “revolutionary minority”, its meaning and functions in case of liberating the nation and approaching the socialist ideal. The article also views this question in the context of the rebellious doctrine of M. A. Bakunin and propagandist doctrine of P. L. Lavrov. The fundamental theoretical sources of the research became the publications of P. N. Tkachev issued in 1876. The main conclusion consists in the fact that the populist movement led by Tkachev stood apart from a number of other populist doctrines. Its concept about the insignificant role of people in the revolutionary process aroused an acute criticism from the side of other radical thinkers. However, namely Tkachev’s concept became paramount in further development of the Russian revolutionary thought, which followed the indicated direction. The scientific novelty lies in the thesis that Tkachev’s idea of driving forces of revolution was viewed inseparably with his overall political concept alongside in the context of other populist doctrines.

Keywords: Effective populism, Socialism, Revolutionary intelligentsia, Revolutionary minority, Peasantry, Driving force of revolution, Russian Jacobinism, Russian Blanquism, Populism, Tkachev

Abstract:   The goal of this work consists in description of the key conceptual positions of just war in the works of H. Grotius, Michael Walzer and Hadley Bull. The author comes to a conclusion that M. Walzer and H. Bull share the idea of H. Grotius on the necessity of the rules for war, law and right to war, and thus counterpose themselves to both, the Hobbesian (political realism) and Kantian (liberalism in the theory of international relations) traditions. However, H. Bull cannot be unambiguously considered the supporter of the just war concept, due to the fact that there is no clarity in understanding of which criteria must obtain the just war. Thus, the lack of unity among the authors regarding the criteria of just war is the important issue for the theory. The article examines the history of emergence and evolution of the just war concept in the works of different scholars; determines the key moments in the works of Michael Walzer; demonstrates the evolution of just war concept in the ideas of English school and its founder Hadley Bull. Despite the expectations of such thinkers as Francis Fukuyama about the end of history, the wars around the world have not stopped, whether it is war in Iraq, Syria, or Ukraine. Each party involved in the conflict claims its fairness, which makes the topic of just war especially relevant at present time.  

Keywords: Hobbesian tradition, political realism, Grotianism, just war, English school, global politics, international relations, Kantian tradition, right to war, justice after war

Abstract: The subject of this research is the British political novel. The bject of this research is the British individualism. The article examines perception of British society in political novels, impact of the political novels on society and social changes in XIX century Britain. Novel as a subject of the research presents a unique possibility to analyze social and political processes perceived through personal judgement. The article covers four novels, which encompass the entire XIX century. These texts allow to track the pace of modernization of the British society, to study the transition of an individual's place within the society and to examine changes of an individual's perception of his mission towards the society. Among the main conclusions are the following statements: 1) British political novel had a profound impact on the formation of British identity; 2) British political novel carries elements of a cultural code within itself, decryption of those allows to present a qualitative analysis and prognosis considering political processes in Britain; 3) British political novel contains valuable conceptual elements, fit for reception and interpretation within the framework of other political and philosophical cultures. Scientific novelty of the research lies in the following: 1) Complex analysis of the novels reviewed in their relation to social modernization has been performed for the first time; 2) Political meaning of two of the four novels reviewed has been evaluated in Russian literature for the first time; 3) Several foreign sources on the problem have been introduced.

Keywords: Godwin, Disraeli, modernization, political economy, individualism, British philosophy, political novel, Dickens, Gissing, ethics

Abstract: This article explores the definition of "club" in various historical periods of Russia: tsarist times, Soviet era, and post-Soviet time from the perspective of evolution of the notion – from self-organized cultural and leisure community towards specifically created club of loyal clients under the commercial organization for inciting the consumer activity. Studying the clubs and club activity, the author defines the possible spheres foe realization of creative potential of a particular person along with the possible vectors of their activity. Special attention is given to transformation of the notion and shift to the economic field in the XXI century. The recent 15 years manifested as the turning period for the Russian, as well as global society. The sequence of economic crises washed out the life orientations of a modern Russian, having originated the feeling of dismay and loneliness in this immense world. Under the conditions of social tension in modern Russia, special relevance gains the finding of place and role of a person within the micro-cultural space, as well as attainment of ability to realize their creative potential. The choice of clubs and their activity is not coincidental, as they belong to the historical sphere of daily life, where the reality manifests as a wholesome lifeworld of a person.

Keywords: public opinion, consumer, club's member, environment, leisure, club organizations, club activity, clubs, communication link, ideology

Abstract: The subject of this research is the Russian sociopolitical publicism of the late XV – early XVI centuries. The article makes an attempt to analyze the content of several key monuments of this phenomenon, as well as determine the main sources, which the Russian bookmen leant upon during composing their works. Ideas contained in the examined texts, became the foundation for establishment of valuable and influential fort the ideology of the Muscovite State ideals and images, as well as political concepts. Analysis of such texts as “Message to Ugra of Vassian Rylo”, “Message of the Elder Philotheus”, “Message on Monomakh’s Gifts” (“Message of Spiridon Savva”) prove the high value of the biblical text as a source of principal ideas and images of the publicism in the brink of the XV-XVI centuries. Based on the biblical text and its interpretations, the compositions contained a number of spiritual-political images and concepts that later have been applied in structuring of the ideological concept of government of Tsardom of Muscovy, which has not been previously examined within the framework of political science.

Keywords: Third Rome, Holy Rus, Russian Middle Ages, Ideology, Message, Library, Holy Scripture, Bookmen, Publicism, Tsardom of Muscovy

Abstract: The subject of this research is the problem of social progress in the works of the representative of conspiratorial direction in Narodnik movement, Russian supporter of Blanquism – P. N. Tkachev. The object of this research is the sociopolitical concept of the thinker. The author thoroughly examines the following aspects of the topic in Tkachev’s texts: on one hand – interdependence between the mental and social progress, development of ideas and science; on the other – improvements in wellbeing of the society. Special attention is given to the criteria of social progress and the factors that determine the progressive or regressive development of human society. The scientific novelty consists in the fact that this topic was examined inseparably from the entire sociopolitical concept of Tkachev and its key principles. The author concludes that Tkachev highlighted the main criteria of progress, the analysis of which must comprise the foundation of any progressive movement.

Keywords: Social controversies, Revolutionary movement, Means and demands, Purpose of social development, Criteria of progress, Scientific progress, Social progress, Narodnik movement, Russian Blanquism, Tkachev

Abstract: The subject of this article is the sociopolitical ideas of the Italian humanist Francesco Petrarca, determination of their theoretical potential and impact upon the development of the New European political thought. The goal of this work consists in the analysis of political ideas, genesis, and logic of evolution of the political-philosophical views of the thinker. In F. Petrarca’s works, we can clearly observe the motives of the value and importance of individuality in social life, which in extremely relevant the modern conditions of establishment of the civil society. The circumstances of spiritual transformation of the Russian society based on patriotism and national unity substantiate the undoubtful importance of this research. In methodological aspect, the author was trying to adhere to the fundamental principles of dialectical logic and specific historical methods of studying and processing of this material. The scientific novelty primarily consists in revelation of the sociopolitical content of F. Petrarca’s synthetic worldview. The author believes that the political-philosophical works of Petrarca reflect the drastic transformation of the sociopolitical life of Italy in transition from the Medieval period to Modern period, when the political knowledge became a relatively autonomous area of human worldview.

Keywords: tyranny, humanists, Italy, political ideas, patriotism, humanism, Renaissance, Petrarch, monarchy, citizen

Abstract: This work examines the conception of intellectual capital in Antiquity, as well as determines the specificity of intellectual activity and succession of intellectual capital. The author explains when and under what conditions the intellectual capital became the capital of primary importance in the state, and which labor can be considered as intellectual capital. The most important is the sociocentric core of intellectual capital that does not allow deviation, because in this case it becomes biased, and its projects – conjunctural, which inevitably leads to loss of the status and falling out of an individual from the intellectual networks. The author determines the criteria of mental labor: novelty of the idea, social importance and social value of the projects, interrelation between the mental labor and social problems or requests. The foundation and pivot of intellectual capital is the freedom of thought and actions, pluralism, intellectual rivalry, opposition of power, secularization, avant-gardism, reformations, constant search for the new, and experimentalism. The established intellectual capital represents the concept and theoretical ground of the order of social life, and is directly associated with the individual and their interests.

Keywords: Sophists, Roman law, sociocentrism, secularization, Ancient Rome, Ancient Greece, intellectual work, intellectual capital, sociocentrism, Pythagorean brotherhood

Abstract: This article is dedicated to the political-legal ideas of the territorial integrity of the Russian state with regards to the ideas about the strong power of a monarch. The author analyses the works of Ivan Timofeev (“Chronicle”), Symeon of Polotsk (“Brief Dialogue”), Juraj Križanić (“On Politics”, “Russian State in the First Half of the XVII Century”), V. N. Tatishchev (“Conversation of Two Friends on the Use of Knowledge and Education", “'The Voluntary and Agreed Dissertation of the Assembled Russian Nobility About the State Government'), A. N. Radishchev (“Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow”). The author unites within the framework of one topic and chronologically gradually analyses the ideas of the Russian thinker who differ in their nationality, social class, and political orientation. The conclusion is made that on the reviewed stage of development of Russia, the strong power of a monarch was considered as a guarantee for the territorial integrity of the state even by the supporters of democracy, such as A. N. Radishchev. The implementation of such ideas in accordance with the moderate national politics allowed preventing the separatist activities.

Keywords: gosudarstvennoe edinstvo, monarkhiya, samoderzhavie, separatizm, Ivan Timofeev, Simeon Polotskii, Yurii Krizhanich, V.N.Tatishchev, A.N.Radishchev

Abstract: The subject of this research is associated with the criticism of the Giorgio Agamben’s book “Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Naked Life”.  The focal point of his study is the relation between “naked life” and “politics” reviewed from the historical, ontological, and juridical perspectives. The author insists that precisely this relation has formed the frameworks of the Western politics as a whole, and democracy as its part. Criticism is based on the uncertainty of the initial notions and the derived from such uncertainty weakness of conclusions, particularly the central core of the entire analytics – the notion of homo sacer and substantiated by it “exception”, through the prism of which, the reality of political life is being perceived. The attempts to limit the understanding of the circle of historical realities by examining their legal futures are justified in accordance with the methodological preferences of the author. However, such narrowness does not allow basing the legal realities upon the more reliable life foundation, which in many cases limit the realism of this research. As a result, the work of Giorgio Agamben demonstrates the shine and poverty of the “academic project”. Putting aside the quite significant factual errors, we should acknowledge the tenuity of the anthropological model, based on which the author gradually structures his concept. But limitations of “humanity” on one side, and of “body” (naked life) on the other, its political and sacral justification, does not allow to put the fairly stable gnoseological foundation under such justifications.

Keywords: biopolitika, exceptis excipiendis, vita sacra, homo sacer, nuda vita, proyavleniya suvereniteta, ambivalentnoe, religioznoe, profannoe

Abstract: The subject of this research is subsidiarity, as a principle of political-territorial structure within the context of decentralization of government power. The author gives an in-depth review to the social teaching of the Catholic Church and Protestant ethics upon the formation of perception in the Western political thought on the acceptable level of state involvement and preference towards greater decentralization of government power. A special attention is given to the demarcation of the notion “horizontal subsidiarity”, which is more likely sharing of responsibility with the institutions of civil society. Within the framework of the review of the “vertical subsidiarity” a separate attention is given to the Catholic perception on correlation of authority and society, as well as society and individual. The novelty of this research consists in the examination of the form of political-territorial construct as a system subject to a substantial influence of the religious factor. The work presents the translation of several encyclicals of Roman Popes, which reflect the key principles of state functionality in the perception of the Catholic social doctrine during the end of the XIX – beginning of the XX centuries.

Keywords: calvinism, encyclical, Italy, European Union, catholic social teaching, decentralisation, regionalism, federalism, subsidiarity, protestantism

Abstract: The subject of the research in the article are the ideas of law, state, freedom and democracy of the famous German philosopher Ernst Cassirer (1874-1945), which he considered in the overall context of the modern European spiritual and intellectual tradition. Special attention is paid to the notions of freedom and democracy that were essentially universal for Cassirer, as they are the common heritage of all European nations. The author also examines the following aspect of the topic: Cassirer did not create a systematic theory of the political, as it is customary in modern political science — economic and material factors the in society were not of big importance for him, but the increased interest in the search for "metaphysical" roots of any phenomenon of the social life makes Cassirer's political philosophy particularly informative and interesting. Research methodology of this topic was a detailed study of a broad sources base — the original texts, most of which are not translated into Russian and are not particularly available and known in our country. Cassirer's philosophical reflections and research on the topic of the ideas of the state, rights, freedom, constitution developed in German intellectual and spiritual history, led him to the conclusion that these ideas are an integral part of the German culture, and not some "foreign", "imported" product of the Anglo-American or French spiritual and political traditions.

Keywords: Cassirer, human, freedom, democracy, politics, law, state, Germany, Europe, society

Abstract: The article considers the main ideas of the sociological concept by G. Tarde - one of the most outstanding representatives of social psychology in late XIX - early XX century. The article analyses theoretical and methodological conditions for the formation of his vies and lists philosophical and worldview bases of the sociological doctrine of the thinker. Special attention is paid to such significant aspects of G. Tarde's scientific works as the concept of imitation, the theory of herd behaviour (the problem of crowd and public), research on the role of media in the formation of public opinion and civil society. Based on the most important works by Tarde, the author analyses the methodological basis for the study of the society suggested by the scientist (archaeological and statistical methods). The result of the present paper is the disclosure of internal interconnections of the main elements of the sociological concept suggested by the French scientist. The author provides general assessment of Tarde's contribution into the elaboration of a scientific approach to the study of the society in general and the civil society in particular, and also reveals some general features of Tarde's views. The author attempts to critically consider the ideas of the French thinker in the context of modern sociological paradigms. 

Keywords: psychologism in sociology, imitation, opposition, adaptation, archaeological method, statistical method, public, public opinion, crowd, civil society

Abstract: The subject of the present study is the phenomenon of the partisan presented in Carl Schmitt’s “Theory of the Partisan”. The gestalt of the partisan is analysed in the context of the ideas of E. Junger, G. Münkler, I. Kant, G.W.F. Hegel, G. Bataille, F. Nietzsche, W. Sombart and others. The follow ing major social and political characteristics of the partisan are disclosed: irregularity, political engagement, increased mobility, telluric character. The author explicates the heuristic potential of C. Schmitt’s concept of the Partisan in conditions of depoliticisation of modern society, erasing borders between the conditions of war and peace, levelling the differences between regular and irregular armed groups. Along with the general scientific research methodology the author uses systems and anthropological approaches to the analysis of political phenomena, as well as the principle of methodological holism.The scientific novelty of the research lies in the interpretation of the Gestalt of the Partisan as a transgressive element of social space that exists in the semantic field between the poles of “combatant” and “terrorist”, but does not merge completely with any of them. In the author's interpretation the Gestalt of the Partisan is treated as anti-discourse element of social space, an element of resistance to the dominant discourse of power, therefore, it represents the greatest threat to the unifying power mechanisms in the globalised world.

Keywords: justus hostis, combatant, war, state, transgression, space, Gestalt, partisan, power, Carl Schmitt

Abstract: The topic of the research in the present article is the generalisation of some trends of the post-classical stage in the development of the concept of the "rule-of law" state in Western countries, including the development of the ideas of the "rule-of-law" statehood in the works of contemporary foreign legal experts, as well as peculiarities and problems of modern international legal confirmation of the category of a "rule-of-law" state. The analysis of the text of international documents allows to say that regarding the concept of the "rule-of law" state, there is generally no unified terminology - international acts adopt both the rule of law and the rule of legislation. At the same time, the rule of legislation is fixed in some international documents. The lack of terminological uniformity in the understanding of the concept of the "rule-of law" state in international documents does not entirely comply with the aims and objectives of the implementation of this concept into the relations between modern states on the international level. In this connection, the principle of the rule of law is of higher priority. Contemporary western legal studies has been showing a trend that negatively impacts the condition of scientific elaboration of the doctrine of the "rule-of law" state - namely, the number of works on fundamental problems of constitutional law is decreasing. The methodological basis of the research is comprised by the fundamental provisions of the theory of state and law, comparative analysis of the research principles of different schools and approaches, the method of the analysis of publications existing in this field, traditional scientific methods (deduction, induction, system approach, comparative method, etc.), as well as special scientific methods: historical and formal legal. The article draws a conclusion about the necessity to realise the difference of matrixes of the "rule-of-law" statehood existing in modern multipolar world, to compare their advantages and disadvantages, to determine the future-oriented ways of the development of the concept of the "rule-of law" state, taking into account the changing realia of contemporary world and real practical experience of establishing the "rule-of law" state in different countries. The concept of the "rule-of law" state can and should be transformed by the legal science and practice of every state in compliance with the peculiarities of its state and legal model, traditions of statehood, the objective level of the national legal consciousness  and civil society. The principle of evolutionary organic establishment of the "rule-of-law" statehood based on the national legal traditions should be admitted to be the governing principle in the new millennium.

Keywords: "rule-of-law" state, evolution of the "rule-of-law" statehood, foreign countries, international legal confirmation, categories of the "rule-of-law" state, rule of law, reel of legislation, international documents, political pluralism, guarantees of the parties

Abstract: The author closely examines such aspects of the topic as the structure of political culture, which is considered by scientists in different ways depending on their understanding of the relationship between the terms "political consciousness", "political ideology and psychology", "political culture".The existence of a large number of definitions of culture in contemporary literature can cast doubt on the very existence of such a phenomenon. But it is crucial to note that the culture as a social object is а multidimensional, universal phenomenon, so it is possible (and necessary) to use a variety of approaches study it. All of them, as methodological principles, are based on different theoretical interpretations of culture.Due to the fact that the political culture as an object of study is a very complex multivalued phenomenon, the research conducted in the article was methodologically based on the application of general theoretical and dialectic ttols using the idea of methodological synthesis as a basis for the design and development of the political approach to social phenomena. This synthesis involves the combination of activity-interpretation of the essence of culture with the phenomenological approach to the description of political life and the principles of the system in its organicist interpretation. The results obtained during the ongoing research can be used in teaching of general and specialized courses in social philosophy, political philosophy, philosophy of management, theoretical sociology and political science. Theoretical and practical significance is defined by the fact that the study of political culture is carried out at the level of socio-philosophical analysis, which allows us to consider it in the context of the major trends in the development of modern society, and the methodology of social and humanitarian studies.

Keywords: experience, evaluation, orientation, beliefs, values, scientists, structural elements, political culture, traditions, myths

Abstract: The object of the present research is the creative heritage of F. Stepun, Hessen, B. Yakovenko as Russian representatives of one of the powerful movements in neo-Kantianism, the Baden School. The dynamics of their views constitute the subject of research. The analysis of the ideas of the Russia “badents’ provides an insight into a clear tendency of irrational expansion of Kantian heritage with mysticism. The author underlines the influence of romanticism and symbolism on the development of F. Stepun’s, S. Hessen’s and V. Yakovenko’s views which was the typical feature of the creative atmosphere the intellectual elite of the Russian society lived in at the turn of the 19th — 20th century. The methodology for the present research involves the integrated historical and philosophical analysis of existing sources. In addition, the author has also used the inductive, biographic, comparative and logic research methods as well as general principles of historical philosophy to trace back the genesis of the ideas. The problems of the national features of Russian philosophy are quite important. In the given article Storcheus analyzes them from the point of view of one of the basic philosophical antinomies, “mysticism — rationalism”. Representatives of the Baden School of Ne-Kantianism F. Stepun, S. Hessen and V. Yakovenko are studied from this point of view for the first time in the academic literature. The author of the article also describes how Kantian heritage can be irrationally extended with mysticism based on the example of the creative heritage of the Russian badents.

Keywords: Baden school, mysticism, irrational, F. Stepun, Hessen, B. Yakovenko, Andrey Bely, romanticism, symbolism, Wilhelm Windelband.

Abstract: The author of the article describes how the democratic teachings were created in England and France and then formed the theory of the Early Modern Period based on the attempts of the noble class to oppose the rights of the estate representation to the absolute monarchy gaining political importance. For example, in France the idea of representation as a guarantee of personal freedom was the result of the attempts made towards the development of the Early Modern Period. The same thing was right for the English scientists. Further, the development of English democratic ideas resulted in declaration of individual rights as unalienable, natural and independent from the representation of people. Generally speaking, it may be noted that “Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen” was a result of the combination of the natural law theories and methodological stereotypes of rationalism. The research method used by the author involved the analysis of a great number of both Russian and foreign sources which have been understudied in our country. When describing the development of liberal ideas in France during XVII — XVIII centuries, the author has used the experience of both English political philosophy and constitutional monarchy as well as the system of the political order in the USA. The theoretical outcome of the development of the political thought in the USA, in its turn, was defined by the English bourgeois revolution of the XVIIth century and English political theorists of the XVII — XVIIIth centuries. In the USA theoretical concepts of the liberal state order were successfully implemented in practical politics and proved to be strong and sustainable which made their reception especially attractive in France.

Keywords: democracy, liberalism, England, France, society, human right, Early Modern Period, constitution, state, rationalism.

Abstract: The author of the article makes an attempt to carry out the philosophical analysis of the heraldic symbols in the Old Russia during the ruling of the fi rst representatives of the Romanov dynasty. The object of the semiotic analysis is the symbol of the double-headed eagle on state stamps of the fi rst Romanovs. The author of the article specifi es that being a symbolical aspect of the picture of the world in Russia in the XVIIth century, heraldic images refl ected features of Russian mentality in general and interpretation of the princely power as an important attribute of the Russian society in particular. The main research methods included the following: semiotics approach allowing to reveal the sign and symbolical bases of social life and behavior of people in the society as well as the social and phenomenological approach and the Jungian psychoanalytic concept as heuristic methods of a philosophical discourse of heraldic symbolics. The standard semiotics analysis describing the meaning, the meant and the reviewer (according to Umberto Eco’s methodological scheme) is completed by the Jung’s theory of archetypes as well as dialectics as a universal method of philosophical research. Heraldic symbols are interpreted by the author in terms of the philosophical category "world picture" expressing a universal way of formation of conceptual and fi gurative and symbolical ideas of the world. Thus, the author of the present article outlines an important feature of the period of the historical development of Russia which is the national identity formation.

Keywords: Heraldry, symbol, semiotics, double-headed eagle, picture of the world, symbol of power, state institution, Romanov dynasty, tsar, throne.

Abstract: The article concerns the changes introduced by Norberto Bobbio into the theory of intellectuals, which was developed by him in 1950s, and presented in his work “Politics and culture” (1955). When the American concepts, ideas and doctrines of Atlanticism enter the Western European scientifi c and intellectual world the ideas of role of intellectuals in society and politics changes towards their de-politization. It was especially facilitated by the combination of concepts, which basically formed an unifi ed doctrine of post-industrial society. All of these changes made N.Bobbio search for the answer to the question of whether the role of intellectuals in fact had changed, considerning that by 1970s many representatives of political science and philosophy questioned both role and the very existence of intellectuals in the post-industrial society. In his works of late 1970s N. Bobbio partially corrected his teaching of intellectuals, while not changing its nature and still supporting the position on the decisive role of intellectuals in the protection of culture from the infl uence of political imperatives. The theoretical and methodological basis for the work involved historical and political science method, historical analytical method allowing the researcher to see the concept of N.Bobbio within the framework of Western European political realities and scientifi c quests of XX century. Both the teachings and the personality of Norberto Bobbio were mostly unknown for the Russian researchers of political history of the second half of XX century, while his concept of political role of intellectual is quite interesting for both the historians specializing in the XX century and the scientists interested in the so-called “history of intellectuals” as a specifi c phenomenon of the political history of XX century. It is therefore important to gain knowledge of the transformations of the concept of political role of intellectuals of N. Bobbio throughout the XX century under the infl uence of pro-Atlanticist theories of post-industrial society in an attempt to “protect the protectors of culture”.

Keywords: Intellectuals, politics of culture, managerism, post-industrial community, experts, cognitive capitalism, ideology, Marxism, Communists, doctrines.

Abstract: This article concerns a topical issue of economical heritage of N.D .Kondratiev, discussing the problem of studying social-economic concept of the Russian historian and economist, namely, cyclic wave theory of N.D. Kondratiev, which was developed by him within the framework of his concept of social economics. The article provides analysis of the economic conjuncture of Russia in 1925-1926 according to N.D. Kondratiev, revealing the contents of events of economic life of Russia at that time. The author attempts to present the main provisions of optimization of economic development of the state based upon the studies of the scientifi c heritage of the globally renowned Russian economist. The article provides analysis of his conceptual scheme, where the scientist develops his views upon the model of economic behavior, the author studies his theoretical proposals for the optimization of economic development, viewing it as a scientifi c basic of great scientifi c value for the formation of the modern model of social-economic system of Russia.

Keywords: Proportionate development, proportionate development program, price scissors, theory of long waves, social economics of Kondratiev, economic behavior, economic conjuncture, balance of the market mechanism, optimization of economic development, criteria for the optimum development.

Abstract: Sovereignty is one of the most important problems in political philosophy because it makes us search for the answer to the most important questions of politics, ‘Who has the highest level of state authority?’. Do the people, representatives, monarch or God have sovereignty? Development of this topic is one of the most popular and fruitful directions in the political philosophy of the XIXth century. Studying sovereignty, Francois Guizot tried to fi nd answers to particular questions such as about the reasons of the decaying of revolution and death of the Napoleon empire, the fate and fortunes of the House of Bourbon and the vitality of the Charter of 1814. The analysis of the development of ideas and term has allowed to reconstruct Guizot’s concept of sovereignty and shows its relation to the intellectual and political environment of the Conservation epoch (1814–1830). By addressing to this topic, the author of the article has managed to restore a very important part of the political theory proposed by Guizot and to cast light on the philosophical sources of the French liberalism as well as to demonstrate the relation between this ideology and democracy. Thi has also allowed to understand the status of the problem of sovereignty in political practice.

Keywords: Sovereignty, Francois Guizot, political philosophy, government, society, state institution, democratization, monarchy, legitimization, liberal conservatism.

Abstract: Being the main representative of the orthodox School of Alexandria of the Vth century and one of the major exegetes of the patritistic period, St. Cyril, even though he did not think of himself as a philosopher in the classical meaning of the word, still touched upon many philosophical issues in his creativity. His approach to philosophical questions was systematic and quite clear. Considerable part of his exegetic writings was devoted to the interpretation and commentaries on the Old Testament and discovery of the Christological meaning there. St. Cyril’s views on human that are based on Paul the Apostle’s teaching about human are implicitly represented in his theological writings. The author of the present research article explicates these views by analyzing systematic moments in Cyril’s hermeneutics and studying the relation between his interpretations of Biblical human images as a particular picture of human nature. The logic of succession of these images shows that the sacrifi ce of the Divine Logos and His accepting human nature and the Way of the Cross for saving each person from eternal death create the central moment in all anthropology of St. Cyril of Alexandria. Noteworthy that St. Cyril’s ‘The Glaphyras’ do not only represent the hermeneutic method of mature School of Alexandria but also are an important resource in patristic anthropology. According to the author of the article, The Glaphyras are an important work that should be taken into account along with famous systematic treatises of St. Gregory of Nyssa and Nemesius of Emesa.

Keywords: St. Cyril of Alexandria, anthropology, hermeneutics, exegetics, Logos, Jesus Christ, Adam, human, the Glaphyras, the Old Testament.

Abstract: The article is devoted to a wide scope of Lev Gumilev’s works and provides the philosophical analysis and systematization of the main terms of the theory of ethnogenesis and passionarity. The author of the article underlines the great influence of Lev Gumilev’s innovative ideas on the system of views of the ideological philosophical school of Eurasianism as well as the definitions of the terms ‘ethnogenesis’ and ‘passionarity’. The author describes the methods used by Lev Gumilev to study the process of creation and disintegration of ethnic groups and the influence of these methods on the establishment and evolution of classical Eurasianism in the first quarter of the XXth century. According to the author, the problems of ethnos can be studied only at the confluence of the three branches of science, history, geography (landscape science) and biology (environmental studies and genetics). The author keeps to the comprehensive approach and objectivity principle. In his research he has also used the method of the comparative philosophical analysis. In the course of his research the author has used sources and literature according to the principles of the academic ethics. Within the framework of the theory of ethnogenesis, development of each ethnos is being viewed as an organic phenomenon and development of a living organism. Passionarity forms ethnos and changes in the number of passionarities growing with time change the age of ethnos, too, i.e. the ‘phase of ethnos’. Disregarding one’s ethnicity and cultural features there are moments when people easily maintain friendly ethnic relations and there are cases when different ethnoses are not willing to contact and even fight. Behavioral patterns may change depending on the phase of ethnogenesis. The cultural explosion is usually accompanied with the decaying passionarity. Ethnoses exist in the harmony with their native landscape. According to Gumilev, the deciding factor in determining a super-ethnos is neither the size or the power of ethnos but the degree of the inter-ethnic congeniality.

Keywords: Permanentism, ethnogenesis, super ethnos, passionarity, complementarity, symbiosis, xenia, chimera, Eurasianism, turan.

Abstract: The article is devoted to the religiosity of the revolutionary ideology and evaluation of Marxism teaching from the point of view of its religiosity and religiosity of public consciousness as well as the analysis of why Marxism was popular as an ideology of radical forms of the social protest of the XXth. Despite eclecticism, Marxism became almost a ‘religious teaching’ not only for the revolutionists of the second half of the XIX – XXth centuries but also for signifi cant amounts of population in underdeveloped countries of Europe, Asia, Latin America and Africa. The author of the article used comparative analysis and systems analysis as the main research methods. The author analyzed the elements of Marxism such as the economic theory, social utopia and protest ideology (religion). The scientifi c novelty of research is in studying Marxism from a completely different point of view, i.e. not as the economic theory and a historical and philosophical teaching but as an ideological teaching for radical forms of the social protest. This is how the author explains why Marxism has been so popular. Marxism was not a principally new teaching from the poi of view of each element present in that teaching. However, due to well selected and combined elements, relations between them and orientation at the revolutionary ideology, Marxism became a teaching and a religion and a popular ideology of the social protest. What has made Marxism so demanded as an ideology of the protest and what has defi ned its durability? Many philosophers have tried to answer that question from different points of view and from different positions but nobody has ever taken a chance to make a special study of Marxism for the purpose of analyzing all its elements as a whole.

Keywords: Marxism, social protest, revolution, social utopia, religion of revolution, Marx, Engels, social theories, ideology of the protest, communism.

Abstract: People begun to wonder about justice since the very moment when philosophy was created. It is not by accident that one of the most famous Plato’s dialogues starts with the question about justice. However, in the middle of the 20th century touching upon the topic of justice during discussions was considered bad manners just like to bang the table with the fist. It became quite clear that what was just and fair for someone, could not be just and fair for the other. Then all of the sudden John Rawls’ ‘A Theory of Justice’ was published. In his book Rawls proved that there could have been a common concept of justice. That evoked interest towards the matter. Ronald Dworkin was one of those who participated in the discussion. The present article is devoted to the critical analysis of the theory of justice offered by Dworkin. In order to analyze the aforesaid concept, the author of the research article uses the method offered by Dworkin – the so called ‘constructive interpretation’. The purpose of the method is to show an object in the best light (supposedly, as the best theory of justice). Consequently, all disadvantages are viewed as the result of internal contradictions in the theory. Along with the concept offered by John Rawls, Ronald Dworkin’s theory of justice is one of the most powerful in the sphere of the political and legal thought in the West. Everyone who cares for justice in general has to choose whether to accept or deny this concept.

Keywords: justice, Dworkin, Rawls, Nozick, equality, freedom, law, auction, insurance, utilitarianism.

Abstract: The article is devoted to the political and legal views of a famous philosopher Isocrates living in Athens. The author of the article underlines that it is quite a new subject of research in studies of Ancient Greek political and legal traditions. Due to the fact that Ancient Greece consisted of polises back in those times, so far the issues of state unity have being mostly revealed in terms of spiritual but not territorial integrity (in particular, in Plato’s and Aristotle’s works). The author of the article analyzes the speech for Archidamus written by Isocrates to prove the rights of Sparta to become independent from Messenia. Based on that, the author defi nes Isocrates’ arguments for retaining territories. The majority of these arguments are quite specifi c and applicable only to the states of the ancient world. These include legends (mythology), decisions of an oracle, legality and fairness of territory seizure as a result of a war, the length of ownership of territories and the absence of objections from neighboring states. Special attention is paid to the absence of mechanisms facilitating the integration of the state and therefore military power being the main way to retain territories in the ancient world. The author concludes that the aforesaid speech had particular political tasks to solve and in that speech Isocrates was one of the fi rst to express his idea of the territorial integrity and protection of a state.

Keywords: territorial integrity, Isocrates, national domain, state borders, state unity, statehood, Ancient Greece, Sparta, Messenia, war.

Abstract: Active participation in socio-political life of the country as well as facts from his personal biography had a certain impact on Vasily Bervi-Florensky’s views. His views compromised his teaching about the theory of communism and dealt with the national and international aspects of the development of society. Almost all his life the philosopher has been trying to justify and improve the public education in Russia and prove to the society the need for building more schools. He also pointed out to the government that it was necessary to introduce the liberty of speech and to get rid of the censorship and other restrictions. Bervy-Flerovsky used to say that education was the most important factor of civilization development and progress and a necessary condition for the growth in labor effi ciency and increase in living standards. Bervi-Flerovsky also said that the country’s force is in the unity and friendship of all nations living in the territory of the country. The author of the article proves that the main grounds for development of the ‘revolutionary’ views of Bervi- Flerovsky were the historical reality, biographical facts and his own researches that were depicted in many works and publications aimed at condemnation of unjust social and political status of workers.

Keywords: politics, society, development, religion, unity, nation, education, culture, values, state.

Abstract: The present research raises questions about justice, legality, law studies, mercy and unavoidability of punishment as these categories are viewed by Masons. The present article is based on the major work of a famous advocate and Mason of the XIX century Albert Pike who lived in the USA. Difficult political situation inside the country, a need in reforms and recent civil war between the North and the South tempted Albert Pike to make a summary and some kind of a ‘moral will’ addressed not only to his Order brothers but to the whole world. Even now his Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry is considered to be the measure of morals for previous and current legislators. Morals and Dogma consists of 32 essays for 32 Mason’s degrees and contains many historical, philosophical, moral and political ideas. This work still remains a topic of research for many historians studying state and law teachings.

Keywords: law, right, rebellion, retribution, Gnosticism, Masons, morals, crime, justice, legality.

Abstract: The article contains the study of development of discussions on freedom and liberalism in the modern Russian scientific tradition. The author analyzes a wide range of authors from the very first researchers in the sphere of Russian liberalism – V. Leontovich and V. Prilenskiy to the latest interpretations of the Russian liberal tradition, including the semantic interpretation by M. Kalashnikov. It is shown that the conventional character of the Russian liberal tradition is much due to the variously directed philosophical traditions, based on which some liberal thinkers formed their concepts. For example, B. Chicherin was a right-wing Hegelian and rationalist, while K. Kavelin used positivism and psychoanalysis. Specific features of Russian liberalism included lack of strong social basis, and the fact that it was firstly supported by the nobles, unlike in foreign states. There was no large middle-class in Russia, and liberalism as a political movement showed its anti-democratic nature and the tendency to be supported by the monarchism (for example, B.Chicherin is discussing constitutional monarchism). The specific feature of Russia includes the fact that a political choice here has always been an intellectual act, which was not supported by a wide range of people.

Keywords: liberalism, freedom, Russia, democracy, West, worldview, civil society, individual, rule-of-law state, conservative tradition.

Abstract: Jürgen Habermas (born in 1929), a famous German philosopher, devoted much of his attention to freedom and democracy in his works. According to his beliefs, the forming of public opinion becomes possible not in the form of compromise, but in the form of open public discussion, focused on rational acceptance of rules within the system of common interests and values. The subjects of Law are not their own property, nor they are isolated parts of a whole - the people, but individuals who achieve moral acceptance of each other during the process of communication, which ensures social integration of autonomous individuals. Speaking of the personal freedom of an individual, Habermas doesn’t only mean a consensus between different interests, but the correlation of ethnic self-identification and legal justice.

Keywords: Political science, freedom, democracy, French revolution, Habermas, liberalism, Law, right, sovereignty, equality, people