Abstract: The Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 is the largest foreign policy event in the Russian history of the second half of the 19th century, as well as a significant event in the history of international relations. As a result of the war, the political map and the alignment of political forces in the southeastern part of Europe will change, therefore, the most diverse aspects of the war of 1877-1878 require careful research and rethinking. The subject of the study is the system of measures of preparation for military operations of the Russian–Turkish war of 1877-1878 within the local borders of the coast of the North-Western Caucasus. On the eve of the war, this space would include such administrative units of the Russian Empire as Temryuksky District of the Kuban Region and the Black Sea District, located to the south, which included three departments of guardianship: northern – Novorossiysk, average – Tuapse (Velyaminovsky) and southern – Sochi. The methodological basis of the research is based on the principles of historicism and objectivity, general scientific methods of analysis, comparison, generalization, concretization, etc. They made it possible to comprehensively study and systematize the material, identify historical facts, determine cause-and-effect relationships, and formulate conclusions. In the study, the author pays special attention to the placement of mobilized military units in the points of the Kuban Region and the Black Sea District, the organization of drill exercises and fire training exercises, and the appointment of those responsible for certain areas of defense. For the first time in historiography, the author considers the creation of the Anapa cordon line, designed to protect the north-western part of the coast, which ran from Anapa to Taman inclusive. The article provides data on the quantitative composition and combat capabilities of the Russian Black Sea and Turkish fleets, which could play a key role in the confrontation. The author also mentions the minefields installed in Tsemesskaya Bay after the outbreak of hostilities. The study also revealed the weakest area of defense – the Sochi department of the Black Sea District.

Keywords: Black Sea District, Kuban Region, mine barriers, Turkish Flee, Black Sea Fleet, deployment of troops, preparing for war, Anapa cordon line, mobilisation, Russian-Turkish War

Abstract: The article examines US, Soviet and British reaction to the development and testing of American thermonuclear weapons. Based on the analysis of published documents and the press of the three countries, archival materials, debates in the British Parliament and the American Congress, the authors assess the perception of how the emergence of new super-powerful weapons influenced the state of international relations, Soviet-American confrontation, and the position of Great Britain. The development of thermonuclear weapons, which became a new factor in the emerging bipolar system of international relations, was largely the result of an irreconcilable conflict between the superpowers. The risk of universal destruction associated with the advent of "superbomb" did not stop the arms race, but the emerging trend to achieve relative parity in the nuclear sphere gradually turned into a guarantee of stability, based on the fear of retaliation. However, at the dawn of the nuclear era, thermonuclear tests seemed to increase the degree of unpredictability on the world stage, raising questions not only about how new developments would affect the balance of power and strategies of the leading powers, but also whether thermonuclear explosions could be properly controlled, what their consequences would be and how serious the dangers of radiation contamination could be. That is why the hydrogen bomb tests prompted both statesmen and the public to address the issue of nuclear arms control. However, the high degree of conflict and uncertainty, and most importantly, the perception of power as the basis of the position held by a state in the system of international relations led to the fact that issues of arms control receded into the background before the imperatives of the arms race.

Keywords: Soviet-US relations, British foreign policy, Soviet foreign policy, US foreign policy, nuclear deterrence, Cold War, arms race, hydrogen bomb, thermonuclear weapons, arms control

Abstract: The article is devoted to the study of the causes, circumstances and consequences of the armistice between France and Nazi Germany in 1940. After the invasion of Hitler's army into Belgium, Holland and France in May 1940, in conditions when Franco-British troops suffered heavy defeats and retreated, the highest political and military circles of France began to discuss the possibility of ending hostilities by reaching an agreement with the enemy. Ultimately, these discussions and the struggle of various political currents, accompanied by changes in the composition of the government of the republic, ended in June 1940 with the adoption of a decision to conclude an armistice with Germany on German terms, which led to France's withdrawal from the war and its de facto subordination to the Third Reich. The article, relying on published sources and documents extracted from the funds of the National Archives of France, reconstructs the course of events that led to this outcome. The positions of key statesmen and representatives of the military command on the issue of the armistice are analysed, and their evolution is traced. The role of the British factor in the debates on the choice of military-political strategy is revealed. The author substantiates the point of view according to which the conclusion of an armistice was not the only option for France: it was possible to continue the resistance in case of the evacuation of the government and part of the troops to the French colonies in North Africa. The decisive factor that predetermined the choice in favour of an armistice was the position of some of the high military command and some members of the government (primarily P. Pétain and M. Weygand), who, adhering to right-wing political views, were inclined to reconciliation and cooperation with Nazi Germany.

Keywords: Paul Reynaud, Franco-British relations, armistice, defeatism, occupation, strategic defeat, Battle of France, World War II, Maxime Weygand, Philippe Pétain

Abstract: The article is devoted to the history of terrorist organizations that arose as a response to the Cuban Revolution of 1959, the rise to power of Fidel Castro and the policies of his government over the following decades. An important role in the creation, financing and support of these organizations was played by people directly or indirectly connected with the American special services and the political leadership of the United States. The activities of Cuban counter-revolutionary terrorists have led to tragic consequences, including the deaths of innocent people, not only Cubans, but also representatives of other Latin American countries. The use of terrorist methods for political purposes is an extremely urgent problem in the 21st century, and therefore an appeal to the history of this phenomenon is objectively necessary to effectively combat this evil. The history of terrorist activity by opponents of the Castro regime is of interest both to historians and political scientists, whose interests include the study of the Caribbean region, the history of foreign policy and the activities of US intelligence agencies, and to specialists in international relations in general. The methodology of the research is based on the principles of historicism, scientific objectivity and consistency. This allows us to consider the problem under study as an integrated system, where the facts are analyzed in their entirety and interrelationships. General scientific (analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, descriptive) and general historical (historical-comparative, historical-systemic) research methods are necessary for conducting research. The present study has a scientific novelty, since it is based on sources not previously used in the Russian scientific literature. A significant part of the corpus of sources used by the author of the article are classified CIA documents until recently. To a certain extent, working with such arrays of information is not only a historical, but also a political science study that allows us to better understand the realities of modern geopolitics. As for the conclusions of this study, they may be summarised respectively: 1) the United States, at least in the recent past, was a direct sponsor of international terrorism; 2) the activities of anti-Castro terrorist groups in the 20th century still hinder the process of restoring diplomatic relations between the United States and Cuba; 3) a violent change of power in the state inevitably generates a cycle of violence that evades the risk of interference in the internal affairs of the country from the outside.

Keywords: Escambray, Luis Posada, Orlando Bosch, USA, Cuba, John F. Kennedy, Jorge Mas, terrorism, Fidel Castro, CORU

Abstract: The subject of the research in the article is the image of the First and Second Chechen Wars, created by journalists of The New York Times newspaper in the 1990s and reflecting the views of the American democratic public. The subject of the study is the headlines of articles related to this topic in the American daily newspaper The New York Times. At the end of the 20th century, the periodical press continued to play a significant role in public life, including shaping the news agenda and creating the image of certain events. Often, journalists sought to impose their vision of Russian politics on the reader. Reputable publications, avoiding the techniques of the "yellow press", used more subtle and unobvious manipulative forms. Such manipulations include the newspaper's choice of lexical units with a certain connotation and the frequency of their use. In this study, the author attempts to explicate the hidden information that is embedded in the headlines of The New York Times. To analyze the information identified by the author in the headlines of The New York Times newspaper, the article used methods such as historical, comparative and quantitative content analysis. The novelty of the study lies in the fact that the headlines of The New York Times newspaper of this period were first considered as a source of analysis of the transforming view of the American democratic press on the events of the First and Second Chechen Wars. According to the results of the study, the following conclusions were drawn: the image of the Chechen conflict of the 1990s in the American press has undergone significant changes. If the First Chechen War in The New York Times appears as a legitimate struggle of the Russian authorities against the separatist movement in Chechnya, albeit with a number of critical remarks, then the image of the Second Chechen War is radically different from the previous campaign. The newspaper presents the events of the Second Chechen Campaign as a new colonial war, while the emphasis was shifted towards criticizing the Russian leadership for violating human rights and freedoms in the Chechen Republic, as well as a direct impact on destabilization in the North Caucasus region.

Keywords: periodical printing, The American press, press analysis, content analysis, newspaper headlines, manipulative techniques, Source studies, The New York Times, The Chechen War, image

Abstract: The author examines some aspects of the daily activities of foreign war correspondents who accompanied the Manchurian army in the Russian-Japanese War of 1904-1905. The article is based on texts published by journalists, materials from foreign periodicals, documentation from military and foreign ministries. Attention is paid both to the everyday peculiarities of the professional conditions of accredited journalists in Manchuria, and to the characteristics of the social environment, which had a significant impact on the process of collecting information in the theater of military operations. The issues of interaction of foreign correspondents with representatives of the Russian army, the local Chinese population and other reporters are touched upon, which is closely related to their possession of relevant foreign language competencies. The dynamics of the number of foreign military personnel in the theater of war and its connection with the course of hostilities are analyzed.  The use of the historical and comparative method made it possible to identify common and special features in the situation of foreign reporters and other guests of Manchuria. The differences revealed in the characteristics of daily activities between foreign war correspondents and representatives of the Russian press, as a rule, were associated with a language barrier for foreigners and greater distrust of them on the part of censorship authorities. In comparison with military attaches, correspondents noted the complete independence of the journalistic corps in solving everyday issues in Manchuria. In the course of the study, several stages were identified in the dynamics of the number of foreign reporters in the theater of war. The correlation of the pace of correspondents' accreditations with events at the front has been revealed and demonstrated. It has been established that the 1904 campaign, especially its summer and autumn events, received the most attention from foreign journalists. For the first time, a range of issues is outlined for the study of which the legacy of foreign war correspondents may have the greatest scientific and cognitive value.

Keywords: European press, periodical printing, Russian army, military censorship, Manchuria, foreign correspondents, war journalism, war correspondents, Russo-Japanese war, journalistic accreditation

Abstract: This article is devoted to the study of the functioning of the Rhodesian Security Forces (the common name of the Rhodesian Police and Army forces) during the years of its de facto independence from 1965 to 1979. The object of the study is the Rhodesian Security Forces. The subject of the study in this (second) part of the work is the activities of the armed forces of Rhodesia after its declaration of independence. The authors studied the history of the development of the armed forces of Rhodesia from the moment of its participation in World War II to the end of the war with the rebels in 1979-1980. Also, the authors present data on the number, racial composition, technical equipment, main units and their structure, and other information about the armed forces of Rhodesia. The strategy of countering the rebels and its transformation during the conflict is presented separately. The research methodology is based on general scientific research methods (abstract-logical method, classification method), as well as on special historical research methods (historical-genetic and narrative research methods). The scientific novelty of the work consists in a detailed description of the process of functioning and development of the armed forces of independent Rhodesia during the armed confrontation with the rebels (1965-1979). After the declaration of independence, the armed forces of Rhodesia, like the police, faced significant difficulties in ensuring combat capability, however, even in such conditions they managed to maintain phenomenally high combat capability and continue to improve. Based on this article, it is possible to draw conclusions about the decisive role played by the armed forces of Rhodesia in the existence of a country engulfed in counter-terrorism throughout its existence. Separately, it should be noted that the Rhodesian army was not racist, since a significant number of black soldiers served in its ranks, especially during the years of armed conflict with the rebels (1965-1979).

Keywords: ZAPU, terrorism, Rhodesian war, Rhodesian army, Rhodesian police, Rhodesian security forces, Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia, Africa, ZANU

Abstract: The work is devoted to the study of narrative sources about the battles of the 108th tank division of the Red Army west of Trubchevsk on August 30 – 31, 1941. Central attention is paid to the memoirs of the famous Russian weapons designer M. T. Kalashnikov, who took part in this battle as part of the 216th tank regiment. In the work, fragments of M. T. Kalashnikov's memoirs, as well as memories of other participants in the events, on the one hand, and documentary sources, on the other, are subjected to comparative analysis. For example, among the documentary evidence one can name the log of combat operations of the 108th tank division, reports of its headquarters from September 4 and 6, 1941. Among the narrative evidence, the most important are the memoirs of L. G. Katz, an ordinary tankman of the 216th tank regiment, and the future general of tank forces, Soviet Union Hero I. N. Shkadov, in 1941 – chief of reconnaissance of the regiment. In addition, a number of memories of front-line correspondents are used. The author comes to the conclusion that, despite the fact that from a chronological point of view, M. T. Kalashnikov’s memoirs are completely unreliable, in detail they quite accurately reflect the reconstructed events of August 30-31. In particular, almost any specific combat episode of these memoirs can be compared with any specific message in the documents. In addition, the designer’s memories practically do not contradict the memoirs of other participants in the events. Moreover, as the experience of comparing narrative monuments has shown, M. T. Kalashnikov’s memoirs are the most voluminous and detailed among them. It should be recognized that no scientific reconstruction of the battles of the 108th Panzer Division is possible without taking into account this monument.

Keywords: Bryansk Front, Battles near Trubchevsk, Kalashnikov: The trajectory of fate, Notes of the gunsmith's designer, Roslavl-Novozybkovskaya operation, Great Patriotic War, Biography of Kalashnikov, memoirs of Kalashnikov, Kalashnikov, Ermakov 's Mobile Group

Abstract: The legendary personality of Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov seriously complicates the study of his thoughts and deeds, forcing the scientist to approach the analysis of sources especially critically. Nevertheless, an objective look at the development of Suvorov’s thought and actions based on his ideas and beliefs are quite possible. The article shows this using the example of one, relatively short event in the commander’s biography: the Polish campaign of 1794. The author rejects both speculation about Suvorov’s campaign as a punitive expedition, and ideas rooted in Russian historiography about a dashing raid staged by Suvorov on Warsaw with small forces. Reliable sources indicate that the commander’s campaign in Poland was not only undertaken by him with humane goals, but was also carefully organized for a quick victory with the help of a massive army well trained by him along the way. Suvorov's ideas, his instructions to the troops and the dispositions of the main battle for Warsaw were studied using authentic documents and letters from the commander, correlated with the entire complex of sources left by him. The article examines the circumstances of Suvorov's campaign in Poland, his instructions for preparing and training troops for actions in the new campaign, orders for careful treatment of the civilian population. For the first time, the number of troops concentrated by the commander for the assault on Prague, a suburb of Warsaw, was accurately calculated, and the course of the assault on the city by superior forces was examined. Objective data refute both Western and later Russian journalism, which accused Suvorov’s troops of excessive cruelty. The study shows that Suvorov’s entire organization of the actions of the Russian army was aimed at protecting the civilian population of Poland, and Warsaw in particular, from the consequences of the war, and that these actions were successful. The commander managed not only to prevent the destruction of the capital of Poland, but also to save a significant part of the civilian population of Prague.

Keywords: Serakovsky, Potemkin, Catherine the Great, Partition of Poland, Prague, Warsaw, Polish Uprising, Repnin, Rumyantsev, Suvorov

Abstract: Studying the phenomenon of collaboration in times of military conflicts in any country is a difficult and painful process. It becomes difficult to consider this problem objectively, since the topic is often in the field of political regulation and propaganda manipulation. This is especially clearly seen by the example of studying the domestic historiography of the issue: this article presents an overview of the literature of the Soviet and post-Soviet periods, including research works by modern historians and foreign authors, which highlight the issues of voluntary cooperation of Soviet citizens with the Nazi occupation authorities. The main directions of studying the designated problem are described and considered step by step: the purpose of the article is to analyze the difference in approaches to the study of the phenomenon of collaboration and identify new trends in this issue. The author's special contribution to the study of the historiography of the issue of Soviet collaboration was the introduction and analysis of foreign-language literature that has no translation into Russian. Taking into account a fundamentally different view of the features of voluntary cooperation of citizens of the USSR with the German occupiers of foreign authors, it can be stated that familiarity with concepts alien to the Soviet tradition helps to expand the research horizons and narrative space of scientists dealing with this issue, to see all the diversity of the issue. It was also possible to draw parallels between the scientific conclusions to the study of the topic not only by foreign and domestic authors, but also between historians of the past and the present: this approach allows you to place historical accents and get closer to an objective consideration of the phenomenon of collaboration.

Keywords: occupation authorities, occupation, Soviet-German relations, Nazi occupiers, cooperation with the occupiers, The Second World War, USSR, voluntary cooperation, collaborationism, The Great Patriotic War

Abstract: The subject of the research is the study of the content, forms and methods of practical activity of cultural organizations, associations of the Penza region and creative workers during the Great Patriotic War at the front and in the rear, as well as socio-cultural interaction in order to form patriotic sentiments. Special attention is paid to the coverage of the activities of cultural institutions of the Penza Region, creative associations, as well as the work of the authorities to achieve the goals and objectives of ensuring the preservation of a high level of socio-psychological motivation of the Soviet population in the fight against the Nazi invaders.The study is also a collection, generalization and updating of local history material on the transformation of cultural life of the Penza region caused by evacuation processes. Within the framework of the work, new historical sources that were not previously involved in scientific circulation are published, to study the socio-cultural space and creativity of cultural figures of the Penza region during the Great Patriotic War as a system of interaction and education of patriotism, adaptation strategies of the Soviet man in the conditions of mobilization and extreme living conditions. The thesis is substantiated that the response of art workers to the needs of wartime was not just a formal execution of a state order, but an internal call, a philosophically grounded meaningful action of each employee. It was the inner desire to be useful during the war, coupled with creative potential and a sincere desire for self-realization, that became a vivid example of the manifestation of spiritual and moral values traditional for our Fatherland. The material collected and analyzed in the work can be used in research work, in the preparation of teaching aids, in university and school training courses, including local history, as well as in the work of museums and in the preparation of scientific literature. The methodological basis of the work was logical, historical-logical, system-structural, socio-cultural, comparative-legal, generalization, commenting method.

Keywords: theater, creative unions, cinemas, sociocultural space, evacuation, Penza Region, libraries, art, Great Patriot War, culture

Abstract: The article examines the fact of Japan's victory in the Russo-Japanese War as the starting point of Japan's historical development in the XX century, which determined the vector of further changes in Japanese foreign policy and played a significant role in the fate of Asian nations. In modern Russia, the 1904-1905 war is often perceived as a problem exclusively of Russo-Japanese relations and a factor clouding the prospects of good neighborliness. The author of the article aimed to determine the historical significance of Japan's victory in this conflict as an important moral factor for Japanese society, which had a strong international influence in the future. For this purpose author studied materials about the Russo-Japanese War, events preceding the Russo-Japanese war, its prerequisites, directly on the Russo-Japanese War and its results. Based on the data obtained, the author suggests that the results of the Russo-Japanese War had a decisive influence on Japan's transforming into an imperialist state in the first half of the XX century, in what the main role belongs to the acquired from the war victory conviction about the right and ability of Asian nations to resist European colonialism. It is the point from where the further Japanese militaristic policy of the 1930s and 1940s proceeds, which was of great importance in the history of Asian nations, as well as Russia. The article is intended for a wide range of readers interested in Russian and world history, especially for those who want to learn more about the Russo-Japanese war and the non-obvious consequences of Russia's failure in the conflict with Japan.

Keywords: militarism, Liaodong Peninsula, Port Arthur, Asian history, imperialism, colonialism, Russia, Japan, Russo-Japanese War, the beginning of the XX century

Abstract: The authors investigate the reasons for the shortage and high cost of food in the Yakutsk region during the First World War, as well as the activities of the Regional Food Committee, authorized by the Special Meeting of the Governor R. E. Witte and the City Duma of Yakutsk to prevent a food crisis. The facts and events within the framework of the problem under study are systematized, the narrative is built on the basis of the problem-chronological method. The historical-systemic method made it possible to determine the factors that caused the rise in prices and the emergence of food shortages. The historical-genetic method made it possible to analyze the development of the situation in the food sector in dynamics, to trace its transformation into a crisis state. The authors concluded that the Yakutsk region, which was a special region within the Russian Empire (geographically remote, occupying a vast territory, with an undeveloped transport infrastructure, and at the same time of strategic importance), was dependent on food supplies for food. As a result of the First World War, the physical and economic availability of food and, above all, bread has declined sharply. Administrative regulatory measures of local authorities could not be effective in the context of general negative transformations in the economic sphere. The food crisis came in the third year of the war - in 1916-1917. Since that time, the inhabitants of the region could rely only on local agricultural production, which was extremely unstable.

Keywords: Yakutsk, bread, taxing prices, speculation, food crisis, First World War, high cost, deficit, Eastern Siberia, Yakutsk region

Abstract: The subject of the research in this article is the loss of aviation forces on the Leningrad Front during the blockade. The authors consider in detail the statistical data on losses in the composition of the aviation defending Leningrad from the perspective of an integrated approach to the study of the history of the blockade of the city as a single unbroken process, which is an important expansion of scientific knowledge about the affected problem. In addition, this study is based on the materials of the Leningrad Front Air Force headquarters, which are being introduced into scientific circulation for the first time. Particular attention is paid in the article to the comparative analysis of losses among personnel with aircraft losses for the same period. The main conclusions of the presented study demonstrate that the periods of increasing losses of personnel and materiel are naturally associated with the stages of massive counter-offensive operations in September 1942, January and September 1943, in January 1944. However, the data provided also indicate a number of unique provisions. As a result, the presented information allows us to somewhat expand the available data on the actions of aviation in the defense of Leningrad. The use of statistical materials allows us to ask some important questions, the scientific answer to which will be inextricably linked to the more general problems of the history of the defense and blockade of Leningrad during the Great Patriotic War.

Keywords: Baltic Navy, Air defense, offensive, losses, Leningrad Front, aviation, Air Force, Leningrad, defense, blockade

Abstract: Based on the revealed declassified documents, the paper examines previously unknown sources about the attempts of the American government to support various programs of dissent, freedom of speech and mass media in the USSR and countries where the pro-Soviet regime was supported. The subject of the study is the content of foreign intelligence published and declassified documents describing specific US measures to implement covert actions in Afghanistan in order to counteract the influence and strengthen the position of the USSR, as well as support centrifugal trends in the Soviet Union through the organization and financing of programs to support dissent, the development of radio broadcasting, increasing radio coverage areas, assistance in the publication of Samizdat literature, etc. The object of the work is the documentary correspondence of the US President and key figures of the American establishment on the use of resources for the implementation and promotion of anti-Soviet activities. The article reveals previously unknown details of the preparation of options and the implementation of approved programs of covert actions to discredit the Soviet regime as part of the military campaign in Afghanistan, as well as inside the USSR. The sources allow us to highlight the activities of the US Special Coordinating Committee for the preparation of this strategy. The authors draw attention to the complexity of solving financial issues in the American administration, as well as the size of US financial injections to support destructive forces in the Soviet Union. Such evidence from very authoritative sources significantly expands the source base in the scientific coverage of the facts of the implementation of subversive activities of the United States against the USSR in the 1970s and 1980s.

Keywords: secret actions, human rights, public opinion, CIA, dissent, Media, anti-Soviet campaign, USA, the USSR, international relations

Abstract: The subject of this research is the dynamics of the network of evacuation hospitals that were formed and operated in Novosibirsk Region. The relevance of this topic is substantiated. Analysis is conducted on the available information on this topic in the scientific and local literature. Leaning on the archival materials, the author traces the formation, displacement, and dissolution of evacuation hospitals located on the territory of Novosibirsk Region in its modern borders. Description is given to the fundamental changes in the network of evacuation hospitals: dynamics in the number of hospital beds, and specialization of the evacuation hospitals. The dependence of changes in the network of evacuation hospitals in the region on the role and place assigned by the highest military sanitary administration to homefront hospitals overall. The novelty of this work lies in determination of the key stages in the dynamics of the network of evacuation hospitals based on the detailed tracking of changes. The first stage (July – October 1941) is characterized by expansion of the network of evacuation hospitals due to the local formations. The second stage (October 1941 – April 1942) is associated with violent fluctuations, substantiated by the rapidly changing situation at the front and, and thus, transformation of the views of the military medical administration upon on the role and place of the homefront hospitals, including Novosibirsk Region. The third stage covers the period from April 1942 up until Victory, marking gradual stabilization of the network of evacuation hospitals in Novosibirsk Region. They filled their niche by rendering medical aid to the wounded with long treatment periods, which justified the evacuation of the wounded from the front to remote Siberian hospitals.

Keywords: The Great Patriotic War, Novosibirsk region, health, care medicine, evacuation hospitals, hospitals, doctors, Western Siberia, Siberia, the wounded

Abstract: This research is dedicated to the analysis of the role of the Soviet Union in the United nations on settling the Greek conflict (late 1947 – 1951), which drew the attention of international community. The article covers the process of curtailing the UN programs due to deterioration of relations between the USSR and the United States in the conditions of active bipolar confrontation, which involved Greece. The goal lies in examination of the approaches, tactics, and nature of the Soviet delegation in the United Nations on resolution of the international and regional crises. Based on the documentary materials of the Security Council and General Assembly of the United Nations, assessment is given to the results of the efforts undertaken by the Soviet government on settling the Greek conflict. The scientific novelty consists in comprehensive examination of the positions of the USSR in UN on settling the Greek conflicts using the relatively unknown documentary materials of the United Nations. In the scientific literature, this topic has not previously become the subject of special research. The author reveals the method of settlement of the Greek conflict. Having compared the positions of the parties to the conflict, the author describes the course of political struggle around making final decisions on resolution of the complicated and controversial Greek conflict. The conclusion is made the achieved results were not satisfactory for all parties, since their interests differed. Overall, the UN played a positive role as an international arbiter, since the critical war stage of the Greek conflict has been ceased, and the conflict has been localized with the active participation of the United Nations.

Keywords: cold war, greek conflict, Special Committee, UN Security Council, UN General Assembly, UN, USA, Greece, USSR, soviet diplomacy

Abstract: The subject of this research is the formation of the higher command personnel of the foreign order regiments in 1654. The article examines the details of the biographies of 37 commanders of the foreign order regiments that existed by the beginning of the Russo-Polish War of 1654–1667, namely their origin in Russia, foreign service experience, production in the ranks, ethnic composition, attitude towards Orthodoxy, army allocation in the campaign of 1654, and share of troops they led in the chief armies. The work is based on the wide array of documentary materials of IInozemsky Prikaz (Office for the Affairs of the Foreigners) and Posolsky Prikaz (Ambassadorial Office); some of the materials are newly introduced to the scientific discourse. This article is first to explore the biographies of majority of commanders of foreign order regiments in 1654. Analysis is conducted on their origin, production in the Russian prior to the Russo-Polish War, participation in the campaign of 1654, ethnic composition, confession; classification is offered based on the service experience in Western European countries. The analysis of officer “services” acknowledges that the foreign order regiments in the chief armies were led by the most competent newcomer foreigners with the Western European military experience. The young Russian officers service led by the experienced foreigners became a pivotal stage in the formation of the national officer corps.

Keywords: Reitars, Thirteen years war, Officers, Scots, Foreigners, Army, XVII c., Foreign order regiments, Officer's corps, Russian thardom

Abstract: This article gives an assessment one of the most notable episodes of the interwar period in the history of international relations – the development of Italian foreign policy in the context of the Italo-Ethiopian war. In the early 1935, Italy was ruled by the fascist dictator Benito Mussolini. One of the cornerstones of his foreign policy paradigm was the creation of the “New Roman Empire”. One of the initial targets of his expansion were Ethiopia and the Mediterranean. Italy replenishes its military and economic resources; however, it was deficient to achieve the set foreign policy goals. Therefore, the war in Ethiopia became one of the key vector of Rome’s official diplomacy. The warfare also unfolded in the ideological context – propaganda, politics within the League of Nations, and interlocutory instructions to the diplomats. The scientific novelty is defined by the absence of comprehensive research on the topic. The relevance of lies the fact that the Russian historiography did not give due attention dedicated to the secret plans of Italy during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War. However, namely the plans of Cesare De Vecchi and Emilio De Bono that shed light on the crucial nuance of the Italian diplomacy of this period, and allow to properly stress topic and priorities with regards to foreign policy. This the article analyzes the ration between the objectives in Ethiopia and the Mediterranean basin –the cornerstone task within the framework of building a New Roman Empire.

Keywords: Di Bono's plan, De Vecchi's plan, History, Interwar period, Ethiopia, Mussolini, International relations, Italy, Propaganda, Mediterranean

Abstract: The subject of this research is the aviation industry during the siege of Leningrad. This topic is gaining relevance due to the recently published documents dedicated to the work of the higher party authorities in the period from 1941 to 1944. In the summer-autumn of 1941, Leningrad was detached from the “main land”. In these conditions, the full operational control over resource base of the city fell on the shoulders of the Soviet and party authorities, who received additional powers, and thus, responsibilities. The author provides an alternative outlook on the activity of the Leningrad plants under the People's Commissariat of Aviation Industry of the USSR, not from the perspective of classical reconstruction of the history of aviation industry in the USSR during the war, but a specific managerial task that was resolved by the party leadership using the general resource base. The conclusion is made that despite the evacuation of the vast majority of production facilities of aviation industry during the war, the resource base was adapted to the specific tasks of the Leningrad Front. The city manufactured the industrial products in accordance with the orders and requirements of the Soviet Air Force. Mobilization of the Leningrad industrial base for the tasks of aviation units during the war years in many ways became a crucial factor in maintaining the combat effectiveness of the Air Force, namely during the rough winter of 1941/1942, when the replenishment of aviation units with new equipment ceased  for the most part.

Keywords: the City Committee, industry, NKAP, the Air Force, Leningrad, the blockade, aviation, rear, Leningrad Front, factory

Abstract: The object of the study is the policy of Great Britain in Egypt from August 1936 to April 1938. The subject of the study is the trends in the policy of the Foreign Office and local British authorities in relation to Egypt in the context of external and internal challenges. The main attention is paid to the situation that developed after the signing of the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936. The study examines the British responses in connection with Italy's aggressive policy in the region, as well as during the "palace crisis" in Egypt, which developed as a result of the death of King Fuad and the transition of the throne to Farouk. These events threatened the British presence in the region, for which the empire had been fighting with various forces since the mid-1930s. The scientific novelty of the article lies in the involvement of new sources – namely the diaries of the British High Commissioner Miles Lampson. It is noted that the trend in UK politics continues to soften the style of government and avoid harsh and radical decisions. In particular, antagonism with Italy is being resolved by diplomatic means, which resulted in the signing of the Anglo-Italian treaty in April 1938. As for the domestic political situation, the "palace crisis" can also be overcome by soft means by creating a balance of power positive for the British presence in the Egyptian political system, as well as through negotiations with anti-British forces.

Keywords: King of Egypt, spheres of influence, Eastern Mediterranean, international relations, Anglo-Italian relations, Italy, Egypt, colonial policy, foreign policy, Great Britain

Abstract: The subject of this research is response of the government, political parties, and society of the Republic of China to signing the Neutrality Pact between the USSR and Japan on April 13, 1941 – one of the crucial bilateral agreements of the World War II, which entailed fundamental changes to the Far Eastern international system. The Soviet-Japanese Neutrality Pact negatively affected the relations between the Soviet Union and the Republic of China. The goal of this work is to objectively assess the impact of the Soviet-Japanese Neutrality Pact of April 13, 1941 upon the domestic and foreign policy of the Chinese government, as well as further development of the Sino-Soviet relations. The novelty of this work consists in the fact that based on the poorly studied Russian and foreign documentary materials, the author examines the questions that have been rarely touched upon within the Russian historiography, such as: China’s response to conclusion of the Neutrality Pact between the USSR and Japan; its effect upon Sino-Soviet relations. The conclusion is made that the Soviet-Japanese Neutrality Pact of April 13, 1941, which marked the most difficult moment of the Sino-Japanese War, was a psychological blow to China. The position of the Kuomintang government was ambivalent: on the one hand, it refrained from the public anti-Soviet propaganda; while on the other hand, used dissatisfaction of China’s population to enhance pressure on its major political opponent – China’s Communist Party. Therefore, the Sino-Soviet relations in general did not experience severe problems; however, the internal split in the Chinese society has worsened, which substantially undermined the formation of Second United Front.

Keywords: China's foreign policy, the Japanese-Chinese war, Soviet-Chinese relations, Soviet-Japanese relations, Far Eastern policy of the USSR, Far eastern international situation, Soviet-Japanese neutrality, Chiang Kai-shek, foreign policy position CCP, China's internal split

Abstract: This article is dedicated to the protest campaign of Labour Party of Great Britain, which unfolded in the early World War I. Based on the range of sources, such as socialist workers’ press of Great Britain, party documents, parliamentary debated, the author sets a goal to examine the key arguments of the opponents, namely activists of the Independent Workers’ Party, which became a stronghold of antiwar sentiment of the Labours. Special attention is given to such publicists as R. MacDonald and K. Hardy. The article also traces the evolution of antiwar campaign and reveals the reasons. Research methodology is based on the systematic approach towards analysis of public speeches of British activists printed in the workers' socialist publications of antiwar orientation. It is demonstrated how in the space of a few days, in August 1914, the moods of majority of the British workers changed dramatically, from unreserved condemnation of the war expressed in the slogans of the Second International towards support of the government in the fight against militaristic Germany. The conclusion is drawn that in the initial months of war, the antiwar campaign has experienced significant transformation. If in the early period it was characterized mostly by the emotional and somewhat sarcastic rhetoric, then later on the background of tremendous human losses, the campaign adopted a rather moderate tone. Attempts of the publicists to grasp on causes of war and focus the need to rebuild society after its completion comes to the forefront.

Keywords: socialist movement, antiwar activity, labour movement, antiwar press, First World War, Independent Labour party, Labour party, British history, Keir Hardie, Ramsay Macdonald

Abstract: This article explores the representations of French diplomats and military chiefs on the methods of ensuring security of Mediterranean communications against the background of unfolding Austrian crisis in the spring of 1938. Although national and foreign researchers discusses the existence of a threat to French communications in the Mediterranean, Paris’ position on this problem alongside the change of its approach, have not previously become the subject of separate research. The author attempts to elucidate why Paris resorted to the questions of military cooperation with London in the Mediterranean Region precisely in the spring of 1938. The author relied on the achievements of the realist school of the theory of international relations in defining the concept of security. The conclusion is formulated that consolidation of Italy and Germany in the strategically important areas of the region – Spanish Morocco and Balearic Islands, which took place during the Spanish War, posed a serious threat to French communications in the Mediterranean. French military officers believed that particular danger to Paris’ positions in the region came from Italy. In the course of escalation of the Austrian crisis, the stance of Paris on the defense of communications varied. If in February 1938, the French military chiefs were assumed that security of communications could be ensured by signing an agreement,  after the Anschluss they considered conducting military operations in the Mediterranean Region in the instance of the beginning of war. Paris was concerned about consolidation of “axis” powers in the region, and a year ahead of London raised the question on conducting combat operations in the Mediterranean. However, without the support of Great Britain, France was incapable of achieving full protection of its Mediterranean interests.

Keywords: Spanish protectorate in Morocco, Balearic islands, Spanish civil war, Anschluss, Mediterranean communications, security, Mediterranean region, France, anglo-italian agreement, military cooperation

Abstract: The subject of this research is the military operations during the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 on the territory of Sochi's Black Sea coast, in particular: the repulsion of Turkish landings near Adler and Sochi; the local military clashes during reconnaissance missions of ungoverned territory south of the river Kherota in the Sochi department; the relationship between the administration of the department and the mountain population of the Kichmay and Krasno-Aleksandrovsky aulys; the issues of the evacuation of the civilian population and the damage of civilian private property by the rebel Abkhazian population, soldiers and Cossacks deployed on the territory of the department; and the impact of the war on the peaceful development of this Black Sea territory. The author used the traditional scientific principles of historicism and objectivity in this research, as well as the traditional methods of analysis and synthesis, the narrative method and the methods of concretization and generalization. This has made it possible to comprehensively study and analyze the source material and to identify causal relationships. A source analysis has allowed the author to conclude that although the war was notable for its small number of military clashes and casualties, the peaceful colonization of the new outskirts of the Russian Empire was temporarily interrupted. After this, it was revived with renewed vigor in the post-war period.

Keywords: highlanders, turkish landing, Adler, Sochi, Kuban region, Sochi department, Russian-turkish war, militia, Abkhazia, abkhazians

Abstract: The article is focused on the Russian imperial diplomatic mission to Bucharest from 1914 to 1916, its composition, tasks, and activities. The article provides a description of the mission's composition, the functions of its members, consular posts, attaches and military agents, as well as an analysis of the conditions in which the mission came into existence in the period under review. Additionally, the author presents the main tasks that the Russian mission faced relating to the outbreak of the First World War. Based on new data from the archival funds of the Foreign Policy Archive of the Russian Empire and the State Archive of the Russian Federation, the author describes the activities and the structures of diplomatic missions in Romania. The history of the activities of the Russian Empire's diplomatic missions during the First World War can rightfully be classified with other unstudied topics in Russian and foreign historiography. Using the example of the activities of the Russian imperial diplomatic mission in Romania, the author examines the most important aspects of the diplomatic work's organization: the structure of the mission, the rearrangement of personnel, the activities and powers of consulates, other diplomatic and military agents, as well as the main tasks of the mission during the period of Romanian neutrality and the results their implementation.

Keywords: Military agent, Consulate, Attache, Ambassador, first world war, Bucharest, Romania, Diplomatic mission, Promotion, Russian foreign policy

Abstract: The article examines the transformation of the US neutrality policy during the First World War in the context of analyzing the reaction of President W. Wilson's administration to the aggravation in February – August 1915 of the Anglo-German confrontation that significantly affected American interests. The aggravation of this confrontation resulted in the unfolding of German limited submarine warfare in order to interrupt Britain’s Atlantic communication in response to the strengthening of the British naval blockade of Germany. The author places the main focus of the study on a set of ideas and actions that laid the foundation for a new US leadership strategy regarding the European conflict, which moved away from strict neutrality to a more active involvement in the European situation. The study is based on the application of the principles of historicism and scientific objectivity. The theoretical and methodological basis of this research is the systematic approach. The research methods are the problem-chronological, historical-genetic and comparative methods. Based on a comprehensive study of the available statistical data, diplomatic documentation, and sources of private nature, the author identifies and evaluates the whole of domestic and foreign policy factors that determined the transformation of American neutrality from maneuvering between the two warring coalitions to an open orientation towards Great Britain, which subsequently led to its entry into war against Germany. As a result, the author concludes that already in 1915 the position of President Wilson’s administration, the economic and political interests of the United States made genuine neutrality almost impossible.

Keywords: submarine war, neutrality, World War I, Germany, Great Britain, Woodrow Wilson, American foreign policy, diplomacy, foreign relations, naval blockade

Abstract: The article's research subject is the system of government and public structures involved in the regulation of food issues in Eastern Siberia during the years of the First World War (July 1914 - February 1917). The author demonstrates that the food crisis had led to systemic reforms in the administrative sphere - in particular, the creation of special procurement departments with representatives set-up locally. The government's top priority was to supply the army. At the regional level, many issues related to the provision of the population were addressed (restraining inflation, combating speculation, etc.), but the scope of the governors' powers remained the same, which prevented them from acting more effectively. The state's insufficient attention to the food supply of the rear forced the population to self-organize. The efforts of urban municipalities due to legislative restrictions, qualifications, and the deficit of financial resources, in the conditions of the general economic situation prevailing in the country, were counterproductive. The consumer cooperation was also incapable of significantly affecting the food situation. The article's study is based on the historical-systemic approach. The process of forming and developing the work of state and public food institutions is characterized by taking into account their hierarchy and internal relations, directions and forms of activity. The scientific novelty of this study lies in the fact that for the first time an attempt has been made to conduct a comprehensive study of the structure, principles of organization and functioning of food institutions in the provinces of Eastern Siberia, and an assessment is made of the effectiveness of their regulatory impact. The author reveals the factors that determined the specifics of the activity of state and public food structures in the region.

Keywords: food commission, consumer cooperation, First World War, Special Meeting, Governor, city government, Governor General, Eastern Siberia, food crisis, Commissioner of the Special Meeting

Abstract: The article examines the little-studied in Russian historiography topic of the role of U.S. President T. Roosevelt in resolving the first Moroccan crisis. The author seeks to determine the content, forms, and methods of his influence on the position of the leadership of Germany and France, and to examine the routes of the resolution of the regional conflict from spring 1905 to April 1906. Particular attention is paid to the secrecy of Roosevelt's mediation mission, which excluded information leakage. Through the use of not only generally accepted means, but also methods of threats and blackmail, the president managed to convince the conflicting parties to sit at the negotiation table in the Spanish town of Algeciras, to shift their position from a dead point and to achieve a mutually beneficial compromise concerning the key issues on the agenda. The main method for analyzing the Moroccan crisis and the ways it was solved is the systematic approach, which consists of a comprehensive analysis of the regional conflict's anatomy in order to comprehensively identify the relationship and interactions of the entire body of participants with an emphasis, above all, on the actions of the American side. No less fruitful is the use of historical comparative studies in determining both Roosevelt’s mediation motives and the methods he used to solve the Moroccan crisis, including in comparison with the tools used in the Russo-Japanese war. In Russian historiography, Roosevelt's mediation mission in resolving the Moroccan crisis has not been the subject of focused studies, but only briefly mentioned as one of the episodes in his foreign policy activities. The article is written based on original sources from the epistolary heritage of the president, for the first time introduced into scientific circulation.

Keywords: Entente Cordiale, mediation, diplomacy, emperor Wilhelm, president Theodore Roosevelt, Morocco, regional conflicts, international rivalry, Triple Alliance, Algeciras conference

Abstract: The subject of this research is the principle of state sovereignty which was seriously challenged by humanitarian interventions in the 1990s and early 2000s that were primarily initiated by the United States of America. In developing the concept of humanitarian intervention, which gradually formed into foreign policy, the United States tied to the classical principle of sovereignty the obligation of respecting human rights, which thus transforms sovereignty from the prerogative and exclusive right of a state to act independently into the principle of imposing obligations and designating responsibility. It should be noted that the study of sovereignty, intervention and, consequently, conflicts, is difficult to conduct within the framework of one scientific direction and of one theory. Therefore, for this article, the author used an inter-paradigm approach, linking together existing theories and their elements. As a result, in the eyes of the numerous supporters of the concept of humanitarian interventions, the non-observance of human rights deprived the state of sovereignty and therefore of immunity from interference in its internal affairs, including in military form. The very principle of sovereignty itself was thus recognized as the most important quality of a state, which, in fact, could be somewhat limited. During the course of the study's analysis, the author comes to the conclusion that, notwithstanding the critical importance of protecting human rights throughout the world, intervention is possible only with the approval of the UN Security Council and only when human rights violations threaten to become widespread.

Keywords: international relations, internal affairs, UN, United states, human rights, international law, humanitarian intervention, sovereignty, foreign policy, interference

Abstract: The subject of this study's research is the state of the defensive lines of the Russian army's Western front at the dawn of the trench stage of the First World War on the Eastern front. The article's author examines the reports of General of the Infantry K. A.  Kondratovich, which were prepared by him on behalf of the front commander-in-chief A. E. Evert. Having visited all four armies of the front with revisions, the general prepared a rich factual material resource. On the basis of this material, the author describes the fortifications erected by the troops both on the front lines and in the rear, analyzes their main defects and how they came about. The author dedicates particular attention to the organizational component, which includes the interaction between the corps and army engineering control bodies. The study applies the systematic approach and the method of system reconstruction on the primary source material, while the author adheres to the principles of historicism, scientific objectivity, and verifiability. Based on the results of the conducted study, the author concludes that the Russian army at the beginning of 1916 was unable to fully adapt to the realities of the trench war. Despite the long respite that the enemy gave, the troops did not manage to sufficiently strengthen their positions. The location of the defensive positions on the Western Front was accidental, and the troops were strengthened where they stopped after the last battle. The organization of defensive work was also often not up to par. The already scarce resources, primarily human resources, were scattered, and tasks were not ranked in order of importance. The principle of unity of command was not observed, notably, corps and army engineers competed with each other. This situation could not give the command of the Russian army confidence in their own defensive lines, chaining large forces and means, and holding down offensive initiatives.

Keywords: Engineering, Fortification, Kiprian Kondratovich, Alexey Evert, Western front, Trench warfare, Defense, World War I, Great Retreat, Military administration

Abstract: The aim of this article is to create a comprehensive overview of the features of the Moscow Military District and its significance in the military-district system of the Russian Empire on the eve of the reforms of War Minister V. A. Sukhomlinov. The article's research subject is the Moscow Military District, and the research object is its specific features (territory, population, economy, armed forces). The author assesses the challenges in preparing Russia for the First World War at the local, military and district levels. The examination of this topic has significant potential because it has remained little-studied in historiography while having a large number of unused sources. One of the most important locations of that time was the Moscow Military District, which was headed by General P. A. Plehve for 5 years before the war – one of the most famous Russian generals of the First World War. The methodological basis of this research is the principles of historicism and scientific objectivity, and the main scientific methods are the problem-chronological and comparative methods. The novelty of this work lies in the absence of historiographical studies on this topic, and the article's relevance lies in the fact that it sets the foundation for further research on the preparation of the Moscow Military District for the First World War in 1909-1914. According to the results of the author's analysis, it was established that the district had great domestic and economic importance. It controlled the densely populated center of the country and provided the troops with everything they needed. The stable operation of the Moscow Military District was vital to the army, as its suspension would have threatened to deprive the army of its human reserves, weapons and material goods.

Keywords: domestic value, economic potential, South Black Earth region, Central industrial area, preparation for war, military reform, Russian Army, Vladimir Sukhomlinov, Pavel Plehve, Moscow Military District

Abstract: The author describes in this article the features of the firing structures of the Sevastopol Defense Area (hereafter referred to as the SDA) in October - November 1941. Special attention is paid not only to the issues of construction and arrangement of the firing structures of the SDA (including artillery pillbox and bulwarks, machine guns and bunkers, but as well to other types of firing points), but also a number of structural problems concerning the formation and strengthening of SDA structures, including strategic and tactical flaws and errors in the location of these firing structures, which were one of the key reasons for the subsequent defeat and capture of Sevastopol. The source base for this article is made up primarily of archival materials. The author examines the original battle plans, maps, charts, and tables. It can be positively affirmed that the comparison of the data and figures of the constructed pillboxes, bulwarks and other SDA firing points in the beginning and in the middle of November 1941, along with a careful analysis of the location of these firing structures on maps and charts, is a fundamental means of explaining a number of historical facts and formulations in the analyzed material. In the article the author comes to the conclusion that the firing structures were necessary for the defense of Sevastopol and had positive combat effects in real battles at the initial stage. At the same time, the author recognizes that in planning the construction and location of long-term firing structures there was a number of serious problems, both objective and subjective, and shortcomings that had a very negative effect on the overall combat capability of the SDA.

Keywords: bulwark, defensive area, firing construction, Coastal Army, Crimea, Defense of Sevastopol, pillbox, firing point, field-gun, flank-defense

Abstract: The subject of this study are the negotiations with the government of the Russian Empire and the Headquarters of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Russian army held in the summer and autumn of 1916 by two representatives of the Czech-Slovak National Council: a deputy from the Czech Agrarian Party, Josef Durich, and a citizen of the French Republic, Milan Rastislav Stefanik, a Slovak by birth. The author pays particular attention to the contacts of these politicians with Emperor Nicholas II and officials of the foreign political and military departments of the Russian Empire. The author also examines in detail another important aspect of this topic: the position of the Russian side regarding the issue of the transfer of Austro-Hungarian prisoners of war of Czech and Slovak origin to the Western Front. The variety of sources on this topic made it possible to apply the historical-genetic method of research, which has allowed to identify the successive stages in the process of the formation and development of the issue of sending Czech-Slovak prisoners of war from the Russian Empire to France. The use of the historical-comparative method made it possible to compare the projects of Russian military and diplomats in solving the question of the participation of prisoners of war in combat operations on the fronts of the First World War. The scientific novelty of this study lies in its use of historical sources previously inaccessible to researchers. These are documents on the process of the formation of the Czech-Slovak corps in Russia. Of particular interest among these sources are the memoirs of J. Durich and M. Jeanin, which have rarely been used in scientific works. The use of these materials made it possible to evaluate the activities of Durich and Stefanik in the Russian Empire in 1916. The author's examination has allowed him to come to the conclusion that the latter's trip to Russia is undoubtedly crucial for the further resolution of the issue of creating an autonomous Czech-Slovak army on the Western Front.

Keywords: Kiev Agreement, prisoners of war, Czech-Slovak army, Headquarters of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief, military department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Council of Ministers, France, Russian Empire, First World War

Abstract: The research subject of this study is the negotiations on supplying Italian aircrafts and aircraft material to the USSR in the period from 1939 to May 1941. The aim of this work is to study the little-known in Russia aspects of the Soviet Union's relations with Italy in the field of aviation. Much attention in the article is paid to the analysis of Italian archival sources. An attempt is made to show the importance of further examining this topic in light of the current development of cooperation between Russia and Italy in the sphere of culture and economy. The methodological base of this study is grounded on the principles of historicism, objectivity, and systematics. Particular attention is paid to the application of the interdisciplinary approach to the study of Soviet-Italian relations in the field of aviation. For this purpose, this work utilized the historical-genetic and comparative-historical methods, which make it possible to reveal the general and particular aspects in the patterns of the development of Soviet-Italian relations in the field of aviation in the period under study. This work presents an important scientific novelty, due primarily to the source base used. The author draws new archival documents in Italian from the Central State Archives of Rome (Italy), which have not been previously studied by researchers from Russia. The author draws the conclusion that, contrary to popular opinion, during the period under study, neither the ideological antagonism nor even the Second World War that began in Europe became an obstacle to the negotiations on supplying aircrafts and aircraft equipment to the USSR, and transport of raw materials to Italy from the USSR, because, in all likelihood, Italy's economic cooperation with the Soviet Union did not directly depend on the latter's relations with Germany.

Keywords: Boris Efimovich Stein, Galeazzo Ciano, Italo Balbo, Benito Mussolini, Italian planes, aviation history, Italy, USSR, the State Archives of Rome, Soviet-Italian relations

Abstract: The subject of this article is the stance of the academic community in the United States on the "Safeguard" anti-ballistic missile (ABM) system as formulated through the pertinent discussions on the pages of the specialized "Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists" journal in the late 1960s-early 1970s. The article reviews the opinions within the American scientific circle of the proponents and opponents of anti-ballistic missile defense, analyzes the pro et contra of the installation of the "Safeguard" system, and also demonstrates the interaction between the scientists and US politicians. As the main research method, the author chose to apply the comparative analysis approach to the works of the American scientists published in the "Bulletin" journal from 1969 to 1972. This article is the first research work in Russian historiography focused on the study of the archive of one of the biggest scientific-journalistic magazines published in the United States. The author clearly shows the mechanisms behind the emerging attitudes of the US scientific circle towards anti-ballistic missile defense. At the same time, the author demonstrates how the "Bulletin" became one of the tribunes of the anti-military movement in the scientific community.

Keywords: ABM, Safeguard, System, Academic community, Cold War, USA, Senate, Stance, Journal, Pentagon

Abstract: In this article the authors examine in detail the issue of the changes taking place in the Armed Forces of the Turkish Republic, drawing the reader's attention to the historical reasons for their role in the country, analyzing the reforms undertaken by the Justice and Development Party with relation to the army, and highlighting the importance of the government's development of its own military-industrial complex. The object of this research is the early stage of the new Armed Forces of the Turkish Republic. The study's subject is the key factors that determined the nature and dynamics of the process of changing the army's role in the government. As a methodological base for this study the authors used elements of the systematic approach, examining the studied object as a complex, whose properties are not the summation of the properties of all of its elements. The collection of variables obtained a practical meaning, being placed in the framework of a single system, thus allowing a full overview of the issue from all sides. The scientific novelty of the presented material lies in the study's results, which demonstrate the complete picture of the process that as a consequence allows to analyze the events taking place in Turkey with relation to the subject of the research. The study's results permitted the authors to come to the conclusion of the extreme importance of the development of the Turkish government and its future, and of the political solutions that will soon be decided upon by the country's authorities.

Keywords: Justice and Development Party, Ottoman Empire, arms industry, putsch, formation of armed forces, Turkish Republic, reforms, army, military coup, internal policy

Abstract: The object of the current research is the resulting from the First World War housing crisis and the reaction to it by the government. In this article the government's interference in the market of rental housing is examined on the example of Right-Bank Ukraine in 1914-1921. Within the framework of this study the authors identify the factors that prompted the authorities to regulate the relationship between the property owners and the house tenants, trace the changes in the housing laws on the regional and national levels and analyse the effectiveness of the government’s intervention. In this research the authors used the methods of: 1) the analysis of publications in the Ukrainian press from the time of the First World War in order to reveal the acuteness of the housing problem, the property owners' abuse and the attitude towards this issue by society; 2) the analysis and comparison of the legislative acts regulating in 1915-1918 the relations between the homeowners and the tenants. With the help of the second method the authors could identify the changes in the regulation intensity. The topic's novelty lies in it absolutely not being previously studied: despite the fact that Russia was one of the first countries that resorted to this kind of regulation, its origins and mechanism remain a white spot. In particular, the formation on this policy in different regions of the former Russian Empire remain completely unexamined.

Keywords: government regulations, First World War, Right-Bank Ukraine, tenant protection, refugees, housing issue, housing crisis, daily life, rent control, rental housing market

Abstract: On the basis of newly introduced into scientific use archival material from the Central State Archive of the Republic of Uzbekistan, the article studies the almost unexamined in scientific historical literature problem of the financial system of the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic during the Second World War. The author examines in depth such aspects as the budget system, the organization and operation of the financial institutions in Uzbekistan, as well as the provision of taxation in the country during the war. Additionally, the author investigates the influence of the taxation system on the population’s quality of life in the republic. In writing the article the author widely used statistical methods, as well as the method of historicism and the approaches of social history. The main conclusions of the conducted study are that from the beginning of the war the economic and financial instability started in the former Soviet Union. Under these conditions the economic system of the USSR mobilised all of its sources in order to finance its military expenditures. The financial system of the former Union, including Uzhekistan, were able to fulfill this task. But the severe economic measures undertaken upset the balance between productivity and production, and also brought about the quick emission of money. The low level of income among the majority of the population, the high rate of taxation, the lack of a sufficient normative and legislative basis of the financial system adversely affected the material side of the population's life.

Keywords: budget, tax system, finances, military economy, mobilisation of financial resources, military production, inflation, Second World War, USSR

Abstract: This article discusses validity of opinions during the Senate debate on “Safeguard” missile defense system. The object of this research is senators’ arguments, presented after the decision-making on the problem. The author gives a detailed structure of their arguments and analyzes them. He pays special attention to senators’ statements on the US National Security or “Safeguard” technical characteristics. The author also defines influence of legislators’ arguments on the ideological split regarding the missile defense system. The main methods used in the articles are historical-typological and historical-systematic. The method of historical periodisation was used while reviewing the results of vote on missile defense issue. Research novelty lies in tracing connections between legislators’ argumentation and the ideological split in regards to the missile defense system. The author’s particular contribution to the topic is represented by grouping senators’ arguments into several categories, which allows to expose their position. The article also approaches the problem of party split regarding the missile defense system.

Keywords: Cold War, Stance, Decision, Anti-missile defense, Safeguard, Voting, Senate, Split, Lawmakers, Survey

Abstract: This article discusses how in the winter of 1942 the Italian SM-81 transport aircrafts flew across the line of the Soviet-German front. The triple-engine “Savoia-Marchetti” SM-81 was widely used in the operations of the 245th and 246th squadron of the Italian Royal air force to supply the garrison of the 8th Italian army under siege by the Soviet troops in Millerovo and Chertkovo. On the 29th of December 1942 the SM-81 plane of general Enrico Pezzi, commander of the Italian air force on Soviet occupied territories, flew out on his last flight from the Chertkovo airport without extort. The plane did not return and its crash site on the territory of Lugansk region has not been identified to this day. In recent years Italian historiography has dedicated new studies on the fate of Pezzi, the last general of the 8th Italian army, missing in action on the Soviet-German front. On the basis of published literature and documents the author describes the different possible hypotheses regarding the crash of Pezzi’s plane, as well as the research on this topic conducted by Italian and Russian scholars. The author comes to the conclusion that the place of the SM-81 plane crash should be searched for in the region of Lugansk.

Keywords: Vtoraya mirovaya voina, sovetsko-germanskii front, Enriko Petstsi, komanduyushchii, Chertkovo, Millerovo, general, transportnyi samolet

Abstract: This article is dedicated to the sanction features of the human resource policy of the All-Union Leninist Young Communist League (Komsomol) during the period of the Great Patriotic War. The author’s attention is focused on the extreme form of corporate sanctions – expulsion, which is examined as part of the regulating mechanisms of the group’s quality and quantity composition consisting of the civilian Komsomol under the conditions of membership shortages in 1941–1945. The author presents a comparative time-spatial analysis of the sanction mechanisms’ work of expelling members during the pre-War period and during the war, on the scale of the whole USSR and on the regional level, while identifying the differences in implementation practices and reasons of substantiation. The study of the sanction policy in the Komsomol is carried out considering the governmental nature of this organisation. The article’s methodology is primarily based on the use of the historical-comparative method, including synchronic and diachronic material analysis, as well as the method of statistical data processing. In presenting the material the author adheres to the principle of historism. The article’s scientific novelty lies in its comparative examination of the questions of the sanction policy of the All-Union Leninist Young Communist League during the period of the Great Patriotic War on the basis of modern methodological approaches. The sanction policy of the Komsomol during the period of the Great Patriotic War was accompanied by an absolute and a relative reduction of the proportion of expelled members in the total body of the Komsomol compared to the pre-War period, which is explained by the aim of the Komsomol authorities to maintain to the highest degree the organisational and executive potential of the organisation under the conditions of a precipitous reduction of its number and the complication of its functional responsibilities. The nature of expulsion during the period of war demonstrates the organisation’s direct link with law enforcement standards and with the objectives of strengthening social stability among the civilian population.

Keywords: disciplinary measures, expulsion, composition regulation, human resource policy, sanctions, Komsomol, youth, Great Patriotic War, Tambov region, Russian schoolchildren movement

Abstract: The demobilisation of the army, as well as of the economy, acquired great importance for Germany in 1918–1919 largely because this difficult process took place under the conditions of an acute revolutionary crisis. The Department of economic demobilisation / Demobilisation administration, headed by the pragmatic and conservative J. Koeth, was already created during the period of the revolution by yesterday’s opponents, unions, and entrepreneurs, and took upon itself to carry out the major part of the extensive socio-political reforms. These reforms were developed both as a concession to the revolutionary-minded masses and as part of a general reconstruction process after the war. The main focus of its activities was directed at reforms in the spheres of insurance, hiring workforce, and regulating wage agreements. Germany as a result was equipped with the foundation for a systematic social policy as a means of achieving socio-political consensus and the government’s role as an active mediator and regulator of economic and social processes was validated. The radicalisation of the revolutionary processes was averted by the person who was far from the ambition of changing the world and from a theoretical construction of social relations, but a person committed to the necessity of establishing a firm government and stable order to resolve the socio-economic crisis. In this aim he was not spared from opposition by left-wing and right-wing forces, but the results of his efforts allowed Germany to endure the difficult situation of general discontent and to lay the groundwork for the stabilisation of the economy and of social relations on a new – republican – basis.

Keywords: demobilisation, “work cooperation”, unemployment, Demobilisation administration, social reforms, revolution, Weimar republic, social policy, government regulation, J. Koeth

Abstract: Reviewing the history of Weimar Germany, the author puts forward the thesis that freedom was lost not in 1933 when Hitler came to power, but even earlier – in 1920. This view is presented through the lens of an analysis of the transformations in the Kaiser army and of the role of the German soldiers in the early stages of the new republic. Despite defeat during the First World War, the change in political power, the limitations imposed by the peace treaty of Versailles, the army still sought to defend its independence and to remain not the government’s tool, but its personification. Military leadership constructed its relationship directly with government representatives. The author underlines the inconsistency of the social-democrats’ political course, the incoherence of the government actions aimed at reforming the army according to the expectations of the party members, the weakness and inconsequence of the political control over the army. The command of the Reichwehr, though formally adhering to the Versailles agreements and constitutional frames, organised a professional army and developed plans for the continued realisation of Germany’s policy of world supremacy. On the one hand, this aroused protests from the pacifist movement in which representatives of the democratic community, as well as officers-pacifists took an active part. On the other hand, the militaristic spirit contributed to the emergence of paramilitaristic forces that became the pillar of the national-socialists.

Keywords: Kapp-Putsch, Freikorps, Reichswehr, Weimar Republic, Treaty of Versailles, First World War, German revolution, pacifism, paramilitarism, Gustav Noske

Abstract: This article examines the attempts to achieve a peaceful resolution of the conflict in Vietnam. The peace process in the Vietnam conflict of 1966–1967 is a little-studied topic in Russian, as well as in foreign historiography. The proposals and programs for a peace settlement, exchanged between the different sides during the Vietnam conflict, can now be retraced through the newly declassified documents. Equally important to this question is that the “Pentagon papers” and the documents of the Foreign Policy Archive of the Russian Federation have been fully declassified and permit not only to review in detail the actions of the United States in Vietnam, but also to assess the role of the Soviet Union in the Second Indochina War and to study the content of the Soviet-American negotiations on the question of Vietnam. This has allowed to examine more fully the efforts undertaken by the Soviet authorities to regulate the war in Vietnam and to ultimately reconsider the role of the USSR in the Vietnam conflict. The article also touches upon a number of questions pertaining to the development of the Soviet-American relations during the course of this “small détente”. In both foreign and Russian historiography many reasons have been put forward to showcase the worsening relations between the USSR and the United States during the 1960s. On the basis of newly declassified documents, the author comes to the conclusion that the Vietnam conflict became the main factor impeding the improvement of the two superpowers’ relations with each other after the Caribbean crisis. The article also addresses a series of questions regarding the role of the Peoples’ Republic of China in the peace process for the resolution of this conflict. China not only hindered the initiative of starting a dialogue between the United States and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, but also in every way tried to involve the US in the “Vietnam quagmire”.

Keywords: escalation, peaceful conflict resolution, détente, Soviet-American relations, Vietnam war, “Pentagon papers”, “Marigold”, “Sunflower”, Glassboro conference, China

Abstract: This article contains information on which feast days were celebrated in the Russian army at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries, and which of them were celebrated on the frontline during the Russo-Japanese War and the First World War. Special attention is dedicated to feast organisation on religious holidays – Christmas, Baptism, and Easter – on the battlefield front and in conditions of captivity. The author analyses the difficulties of arranging religious feasts in wartime, the established routines of celebration, the attitude of participants towards them, as well as the dynamics of this attitude on the frontline with the particularities of being in a moving military campaign. The preferences and degrees of involvement in setting up celebrations by soldiers and officers are also addressed. The article is written primarily of the basis of sources from private possessions – memories, diaries, and memoirs – which provide its accuracy through eyewitness accounts. The research’s main conclusions pertain to the significance of feast days in the formation of a military collective, as a morale boost for the troops during military operations. Beside this the author makes some conclusions regarding the personal involvement of military servicemen and clergy in the organisation of religious feast days during wartime.

Keywords: Christmas, protopresbyter, military clergy, military traditions, frontline daily life, First World War, Russo-Japanese War, Easter, prayer, captivity

Abstract: The article, based on the examples of two wars from the beginning of the 20th century, reviews the role of icons in wars, the relationship of the clergy and the military towards them, as well as that of their enemies. Additionally, the article sheds light on the history of two specific miracle-working icons – the Port Arthur and the Augustów icons of the Theotokos. Special attention is given to the activity of the Extraordinary inquiry commission for investigating the violations of laws and war usage by the Austro-Hungarian and German troops and for the disclosure of instances of icon defilement and destruction. Based on the research of various source groups, the author reveals the designation of icons in wars, analyses the traditional rituals of carrying-out icons and the propagandistic endeavours where an icon was featured in a key role. The issue of the reasons for the change in attitude towards icons is also addressed, including change not only on the part of the soldiers and officers, but also on the part of the clergy itself, of the protopresbyter and military and naval clergy. Moreover, the article discusses the most venerated icons in these wartimes, traces the fate of individual icons connected with the history of the named wars, their ruin and salvation, their defilement and deliberate destruction by enemies. The author addresses the topic of the recognition of two icons as miracle-working, analyses the question of iconography and its assessment by the Synod, the problems of reproduction and preservation of the lists of these icons, as well as the circumstances of their loss and acquisition. The article furthermore studies the reasons for the failure of religious propaganda in the years of the Russo-Japanese War and the First World War.

Keywords: military icon, military clergy, First World War, Russo-Japanese War, Nicholas II, miracle-working icon, Theotokos, Orthodox iconography of the Theotokos, protopresbyter, icon defilement

Abstract: The article is devoted to the issue of places of worship on the fronts of the First world war. There is a controversy regarding samples marching thrones required lists of things to organize services in a military campaign, discusses the consequent difficulties in the manufacture of Hiking churches. Highlights the problem of supply priests in the army marching churches. Explores the conflict that arose due to the use of buildings Orthodox, Uniate Catholic churches of Galicia for the organization of worship, between the Russian military and naval clergy and the Archbishop of Volhynia and Zhytomyr. This paper investigates the sources of different origin, including first introduced into scientific circulation.The novelty of the research lies in the formulation of the question, because the practical problem of divine service at the front during the First world war, researchers are not affected. An important question is the relation to the objects of worship and places of worship from both the congregation and the priests, and the Catholic population of Galicia, as well as Austrians and Germans. Provides information about the activities of the Commission on documenting cases of desecration of churches and icons.

Keywords: iconostas, mobile altar, church tent, field church, charity, protopresbyter, diocesan clergy, military clergy, church service, First World War

Abstract: The article examines the ideological struggle of the Polish political parties and groups aimed at winning over public opinion in the Kingdom of Poland at the beginning of World War I. The main sources for this research are Russian and Polish archives, including police reports, political agitation pamphlets and reports to the Governor General of Warsaw – some of the material is being used in scientific research for the first time. Particular attention is given to the memoirs of the leaders of the National-Democratic party, the most influential on the territory of the Kingdom of Poland. The document analysis showed the differing positions of the pro-Russian and pro-Austrian parties and the degree of their influence on the public opinion in the Privislinsky Krai. In particular, besides the obvious idea for the Polish National-Democrats of fully supporting Russia in the war, there were futile attempts to boycott the military mobilization on the territory of the Kingdom of Poland and unresponded calls to the population to support the Central powers – Germany and Austria-Hungary. Moreover, it is significant that after the beginning of the war most of the socialist-leaning Polish parties remained in their previous political positions, standing against supporting any of the sides of the conflict.

Keywords: National-Democratic party, press, political agitation, World War I, Privislinsky Krai, Kingdom (Tsardom) of Poland, history, Pilsudski, police, reports.

Abstract: The article analyzes the foreign policy of the Supreme Ruler of Russia admiral A. V. Kolchak, attested in a series of documents prepared for the Paris Peace Conference of 1919–1920. The author focuses on the directive line of the “White Movement’s” foreign policy platform , which aimed to preserve a “united and undivided” Russia and thus assumed the restoration of the territories of the Russian Empire to their previous frontiers. At the same time, it is noted that the Supreme Ruler’s declared idea could not be accepted by the governments of the Entente, as their interest in the “White Movement” was limited to its fight against the Bolshevik rule. One of the main sources for this study is the program of action of the Russian delegation at the Paris Peace Conference, written by the Omsk administration of A. V. Kolchak. On the basis of this document and on other archival material the author analyzes the political outlook of the Supreme Ruler of Russia, which gives an idea on the character of the envisioned future “method of ruling” the Russian state. The leading idea of A. V. Kolchak’s foreign policy was the idea of ensuing the strategic security and integrity of Russia, which clearly prevailed over safeguarding the internal stability of the multi-national state. On the example of the Ukrainian, Polish and Finnish questions, the authors of the program touched upon the problem of a nation’s right to self-determination and on the principle of border-establishment between Russia and new-founded countries.

Keywords: history, Russia, the “White Movement”, A. V. Kolchak, foreign policy, Paris Peace Conference, allies, Entente, Germany, “united and undivided”.

Abstract: This article is basically the first introduced into scholarly circulation that deals with archival intelligence materials of the RGVA (Russian State Military Archive), RGASPI (Russian State Archive of Sociopolitical History), TsAMO RF (Central Archive of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation), RGIA DV (Russian State Historical Archive of the Far East), and the Archive of the UFSB (Office of Federal Security Service) of Russia in the Omsk District. It studies the problem of the organization of the secret service by Soviet authority in the Amur Region—a topic on which practically no light has been shed in the scholarly historical literature. The process examines the creation of intelligence services and their organizational and staff conversion in 1920 from Sovietization of the region to its becoming part of the Far Eastern Republic. In addition, the article identifies features of transformation in the functional tasks that stood before the indicated institutions. The essence and scale of organization of intelligence activities in the territory of the Russian Far East and northern China during the indicated period have been revealed. As a result, the author concludes that the process of creating agencies of military secret service in the Amur Region in 1920 differed substantially. The tasks of conducting reconnaissance were dispersed among several regional authoritative organizations, which in addition were also solving tasks of characteristic counter-intelligence. The functions of these organizations duplicated each other and thus often led to unhealthy competition. The activities of the intelligence organizations consumed no small financial and material-technical means. Accordingly, the results of implementation of the intelligence tasks, revealed by the preserved archival documents, appear to be insufficient. Only at the end of 1920 were the functions of management of the military secret service concentrated in the registration department of the 2nd Amur Army. This permitted imposing a certain order on this question and establishing bases of effective organization in the collection of intelligence about threats to the security of the Far Eastern Republic.

Keywords: history, Far Eastern Republic, Peoples Revolutionary Army, Amur Front, 2nd Amur Army, military intelligence, military intelligence division, M. I. Arkhipov, Ya. M. Bodesko-Mikhali, I. Ya. Markov.

Abstract: During the years 1941-1945, Soviet laborers were subject to increased coercion. Two new categories of forced laborers appeared: the “labor soldiers” and the POWs. They added to the categories already present in the thirties: the concentration camp prisoners and the “special settlers”. The aim of this article is to describe as precisely as possible the situation of these unfree laborers. The four categories were not separated by clear boundaries, but overlapped, with almost imperceptible transitions. This article examines forced labor in the Urals during World War II. Forced labor was an important part of Soviet war economy. The Urals region was a great industrial region, which played a great role in the production of weapons during the war and contributed very much to the Soviet victory. It was also a zone of camps and “special settlements”, where people named “special settlers”, deported according to social or ethnic criteria, lived.

Keywords: USSR, Urals, World War II, forced labor, Gulag, concentration camps, prisoners of war, special settlers, labor soldiers.

Abstract: the author researches the problems of military intelligence residencies in Vladivostok (Primorye) during the 1920–1922, the organizational and staff changes, management and classified staffing, collaboration and coordination of intelligence activities of the residencies of central and regional bodies of the Military Intelligence.

Keywords: history, Far Eastern Republic, Primorye, People’s Revolutionary Army, the Workers’ and Peasants’ Red Army, military intelligence, the Political Inspection Authority, Registration Division, Intelligence Agency, the military intelligence residency.

Abstract: the article shows influence of the revolution of 1917 in Russia on the foreign troops located in Macedonia. Author analyses events that led to the dissolution of the special brigades and the role of the British and French allies, who used Russian troops to achieve their own goals.

Keywords: history, World War I, Saloniki front, Macedonia, Russian troops, special brigades, revolution of 1917, provisional government, the Allies, labor.

Abstract: the article gives a detailed description of the development of relations between Libya and the Sudan in the period of cooperation and confrontation, the authoritarian regimes of Gaddafi and J. Nimeiri (1969-1985) and the subsequent overthrow of Nimeiri detente (1985-1989), the author proposes a periodization of the bilateral relations in the formal (diplomatic ) and informal (real) levels. The article reveals the motivation of leadership of both countries, the causes of the conflict, its dynamics and main factors (internal and external), the participation of third countries (Egypt, Ethiopia, Chad), and the outcome of short- and long-term historical perspective. The study was based on analysis of the English, French and Russian scientific literature, materials, media, and political public speeches.

Keywords: history, Africa, Libya, Sudan, Gaddafi, Nimeiri, foreign policy, conflict, authoritarianism, pan-Arabism.

Abstract: the article deals with the diplomatic battle in World War I between the Allies and Central Powers in the Balkans on the role and significance of the Salonika front, and gives a brief analysis of military operations in the area. The author shows how the intrigue within the coalition prevented the achievement of strategic objectives in this theater of this military operation.

Keywords: history, the Balkans, World War I, Salonika front, Macedonia, Greece, Serbia, diplomatic struggle, the Entente, Quadruple Alliance.

Abstract: name of the great Knyazh Alexander Yaroslavovich Nevsky is known to all from the school course of history. The visualization created by the actor Nikolay Cherkasov, became an idol reference for several generations of our countrymen. In the mass consciousness the Battle on the Ice is one of the major milestones in the history of medieval Russia. The article not only traces its causes, course and consequences, but also searches for answers to the following questions: why was the Battle on the Ice is so widely known, why Alexander Nevsky became sacral character of national history and one of the most famous figures in medieval Russia.

Keywords: history, the Battle on the Ice, the Battle of Lake Chudskoye, Alexander Nevskiy, Novgorod lands, the Crusaders, the Teutonic Order, the Baltics, the Middle Ages, historical stereotypes.

Abstract: this article deals with question of military innovations and mechanisms of military elites adaptation to technical changes. Based on the new for the Russian historiography sources and a wide range of literature, on example of France in 1920th the author reveals base factors that influenced the adaptation of military to a new means of war – a tank, offers a basic scheme of how military adapts to new technical realities, compares French tank doctrine of 1920th to the German “blitzkrieg”.

Keywords: history, history of mechanism, military doctrine, tank, mechanized war, strategic mobility, factor of military organization, “blitzkrieg”, adaptation to technical changes, sociocultural factor

Abstract: being based on a large number of published and archival documents the article reconstructs the history of the process of diplomatic recognition of Italy by the Soviet Union. It shows the struggles of the anti-Hitler coalition countries for Italy out of World War II, reflects the British and U.S. attempts to dominate the economy and politics of Italy, to prevent the Soviet government to negotiate with the democratic and anti-fascist forces of Italy to accept the surrender. It analyzes domestic and foreign policy problems Italy faced in connection with its exit from the Hitler coalition and the country’s transition to democratic rule. Author proves the primacy of the Soviet Union in recognition of the government of liberated Italy, de jure and significance of this event for the state.

Keywords: history, USSR, Italy, war, fascism, Benito Mussolini, Stalin, democracy, agreement, policy.

Abstract: The article is devoted to the 400th anniversary of the establishment of the First national militia, which started the fight for the liberation of Moscow. The article deals with the prehistory of the organization of military forces, and with its first campaigns and battles. A brief description of militia leaders Lyapunov P.P., Trubetskoy D.T., Zarutskiy I.M. is also given.

Keywords: history, the Time of Troubles, Polish intervention, state movement, militia, military forces, Council of seven boyars, Lyapunov, Zarutskiy, Trubetskoy.

Abstract: The article tells about the Japanese art collector S. Kitaev (1864–1927) and his collection of Japanese art, it was the largest one in Russia and one of the largest ones in Europe. A few years after the October Revolution of 1917 the collection became part of the collection of the State Museum of Fine Arts named after A. S. Pushkin and was never fully analyzed or exhibited. The author worked on the catalog of engravings from this collection and found that compared with archiv information on the items of the collection the what is now kept in the Pushkin Museum is much less on the contents and quality.The article is devoted to the study of this problem.

Keywords: cultural history, collections, art, painting, drawing, art collectors, Japan, Russia, devastation, museums.

Abstract: The article highlights the formation and history of the construction of fortifications on the southern borders of Muscovy. It shows how it was delivered to the bearing of a guard and garrison duty, what measures were taken to protect the borders against incursions from outside, what importance the government attached abates service.

Keywords: history, the national military history, national defense, patrol units and the villages, abatis, abatis boundaries, fortress cities, abates service, the system of fortifications, abatis construction, garrisons of the fortresses