Abstract: This article considers the opposition between the pluralist and unificationist stances in the philosophy of cognitive sciences. The choice between pluralism and unificationism is important both in terms of discussing the current methodological practices and with respect to the debates about the future of the cognitive studies. As a starting point, the author takes his own idea of theoretical complexes. One of its most significant normative consequences is theoretical pluralism. There have been a number of skeptical arguments against pluralism, including the fear of generating many useless theories and dissipating of efforts, as well as the doubts about the differences between pluralism and relativism. One of the most recent objections states that integrative pluralism implies a tension, an instability, if one prioritizes the epistemic quality of explanatory depth. The author addresses each of these objections in turn. The constructive variety of pluralism is distinguished from unbridled pluralism and relativism by its commitment to the idea of improving explanatory, predictive, and other characteristics of a theory through the presence of alternatives and their collisions, mutual criticisms. Integrative pluralism does not entail instability, since the values of unification and explanatory depth cannot be prescribed to the cognitive sciences ex cathedra, without taking into account the character of the cognitive process revealed in empirical studies. The pluralist stance appears to be incompatible with radical projects of unification of the cognitive studies, though there are many opportunities for more moderate integrative initiatives. One such initiative is the recent idea of integrative experiment design, which involves constructing a space of experiments for a particular problem. Testing theories by selectively sampling points in this space and then updating them accordingly may be a key to the integration of experimental observations.

Keywords: theoretical complexes, characteristics of a good theory, relativism, unified theory, unification, unificationism, proliferation, integrative pluralism, cognitive sciences, philosophy of science

Abstract: The subject of this study is materialism, understood in the broadest sense of this concept: both as a philosophical doctrine and as a way of life corresponding to a certain worldview position. The aim is to clarify the objective role of this worldview position in various fields of human activity. At the center of the research is the question of the essence of materialistic ideas about the world hiding behind the sensually given reality to man. The study consists of two parts, published in separate articles. The first part is devoted to the origins of the materialistic worldview and the main question of philosophy, and in this, its second part, the question of the philosophical problems of non-classical physics is considered, the root of these problems is revealed, a comparative worldview analysis of the basic concepts of classical and non-classical physics is carried out and the overall result of the research is summarized. The methodology of this research is the principle of materialistic monism, according to which absolutely all phenomena of the human-cognizable world can be based only on something material, "influencing". The general conclusions of this study are as follows: the roots of the materialistic worldview go back to the origins of life, to such a condition of successful vital activity of living beings, which is inherently ideological; this condition, called by the author the Main Question of Life, is the historical forerunner of the Main Question of Philosophy; the worldview position, equivalent to the materialistic solution of the OVF, is inherent in the vital activity of absolutely all living beings; all people in their daily and practical activities are born materialists. In addition, this study clarifies the idea of the essence of materialistic teaching; shows the exclusivity of the materialistic worldview as the only true worldview; provides a refined definition of the concept of matter; proves the need to shift the "center of gravity" of modern materialistic teaching from dialectics to the principle of materialistic monism; formulates the missing requirement for scientific theories to ensure their ideological viability; shows the ideological inconsistency the main ideas of the new, non-classical physics.

Keywords: reality, principle of materialistic monism, ideological position, the basic question of life, fundamental question of philosophy, dialectical materialism, materialism, matter, objective reality, philosophical problems of physics

Abstract: The article considers the opposition of the doctrines of pluralism and monism and their related principles of proliferation and unification in the context of the development of modern cognitive sciences in three important respects for philosophy of science: theoretical, methodological, and explanatory. The article criticizes T. Kuhn’s views of theoretical monism and extends the defense of theoretical pluralism undertaken in author’s previous publications devoted to the conception of theoretical complexes, aimed at the correct description of large groups of theories in the cognitive sciences, such as connectionism, moderate embodied cognition, etc. Pluralism is also defended in methodological dimension. Theoretical pluralism and methodological pluralism are represented as an inevitable consequence of the conception of theoretical complexes and its principle of proliferation calling for the creation/improvement of scientific theories and models which are both compatible and incompatible with respect to a number of basic ontological and methodological assumptions. Theoretical pluralism and methodological pluralism should promote progress with respect to a number of the so-called epistemic qualities, both associated with the approximation of the truth (e.g. predictive success, the ability to give unexpected explanations to known facts, etc.) and not so associated (empirical fit, simplicity according to some interpretations, and the broad scope of the proposed explanations). At the same time the author claims that it is currently not possible to draw a similar conclusion in relation to the explanatory context: if the strategy of explanatory monism or explanatory pluralism will turn out be the preferred strategy for the cognitive sciences should become clear in the course of further research.

Keywords: epistemic values, unification, proliferation, pluralism, monism, normativity, theoretical complexes, philosophy of science, cognitive sciences, progress

Abstract: The article examines the history of the development of the ideas of semiotics, from the works of St. Augustine to the present. The author shares the semiotic approach, which, judging by the literature, was formulated by Augustine, and semiotics as a scientific discipline, and in two versions, as an analogue of mathematics and natural science (we are talking about the "second nature", which is studied in the humanities and social sciences). The characteristic of the semiotic approach presented by Augustine in the scheme is given, which, the author shows, can be extended to various humanitarian objects (this is specifically demonstrated with respect to music). Based on the semiotic approach and classifications of signs, various variants of semiotics as a science were created in the XIX and XX centuries.   The difference of scientific semiotics is explained: semiotics solved different problems and tasks, semiotically comprehended different subject areas, proceeded from a different understanding of science. Nevertheless, in all variants of semiotics, relations between the components of the sign were established. The semiotics reform project proposed by G.P. Shchedrovitsky is considered, and what came of it (another semiotics, and not the organization of different scientific semiotics on a single basis of the theory of activity). Based on the analysis of two cases (the semiotic analysis of the metaphor in the work of Meir Shalev "Esav" and the sculpture of Aphrodite Praxiteles), the author outlines another version of semiotics, which he calls "expressionism". Although the methodology proposed by him allows analyzing and comprehending a fairly wide range of expressions and works of art, the author suggests not to consider it universal.

Keywords: interpretation, reconstruction, expressions, schemes, signs, approach, the science, semiotics, works, reality

Abstract: This article examines an aspect of “Needham’s Question” related to the specificity of scientific rationality formed within the framework of new-European worldview. The research is dedicated to the comparative analysis of New-European and Chinese types of rationality. Based on studying the specificity of the dominant cultural paradigms, the author highlights and describes the features of Chinese and European worldview systems. Characteristic is given to Chinese and New-European rationality with emphasis on their essential differences, although they have some external similarities. The goal of this work consists in revelation of characteristic qualities of the European and Chinese worldview systems that predetermined the essential peculiarities of the types of rationality established in terms of these civilizations and influences the process of scientific development. The scientific novelty consists in examination of worldview components of New-European and Chinese as the particular manifestations of different types of rationality. The conclusion is made that structural elements of the two worldviews led to formation of various types of rationality. Among the fundamental differences are the discrepancies in understanding the concept of the “law of nature”, representations on uniformity of laws of the world, ontological status of a human being, purposes of cognition of the world and character of cognitive activity. The author underlines the practical nature of European rationality and mainly ethical nature of Chinese rationality. In order to explain the genesis of science, along with identification of the rationalizing component of worldview, it is necessary to clarify the nature of that rationality.

Keywords: Desacralization of nature, European science, Chinese science, Order of nature, Law of Nature, Ethical rationality, Practical rationality, Scientific style of thinking, Worldview, Subject-object opposition

Abstract: This article explores the problem of the reduction of normative statements to descriptive statements. The starting point for discourse became the philosophical thesis “is–ought problem” (known as Hume’s guillotine) that speaks of the logical incompatibility of the statements on facts statements on values and norms. There have been determined three approaches towards solution of the question on norms reduction: semantic-ontological, emotive, and naturalistic. Each of the approaches has its merits and demerits. The semantic-ontological approach allows structuring and substantiating any deontic system, but does not suggest the selection criterion between these systems. The emotive approach denies the presence of logical meaning in normative statements and rejects the possibility of their reduction to the descriptive statements. However, the merit of such approach consists in the precise designation of the criteria of validity and falsity of statements. The naturalistic approach attempts to substantiate the normative statements using factual evidence on the animal behavior and theory of evolution, but faces the philosophical objections against physicalism and behaviorism. The scientific novelty lies in comparison of the aforementioned approaches and determination of their principal merits and demerits.

Keywords: ontology, semantics, meaning, Hume's guillotine, normativity, deontic logic, reduction, emotivism, naturalism, constructivism

Abstract: This article examines the transformation of production of scientific knowledge in the modern computer science. A brief description is given to the phenomenon of technoscience, as well as fundamental characteristics of technoscientific model of the production of scientific knowledge. The article discusses the concept of binary code as the framework that defines the emergence of computer science due to the synthesis of fundamental and applied aspects of knowledge. The description of the concept of quantum computers is also used for proving the interdependent correlation of the practical and theoretical studies in the modern computer science. Attention is given to the role of cryptography in computer science. For demonstrating the peculiarities of technoscience, the author examines the current small and large high technology companies. The article reviews the proximity level between the fundamental and applied research in computer science, role of scientific studies in business process of high technology companies, as well as the impact of sociological and economic factors in scientific research. It is concluded that the synthesis of theoretical and applied studied becomes the key moment in the advancement of computer science. The productive development of the modern scientific knowledge in computer science is observed namely in the high technology companies, while the social and economic context gains an important role in examination of the transformation of scientific knowledge.

Keywords: IT, technoscientific models, technoscience, applied research, technical knowledge, philosophy of technology, high tech business, technology convergence, technology, knowledge

Abstract: The subject of this research is the modern historical epistemology. It is a new, but solidly established direction in studying the origin and evolution of scientific knowledge, characterized by application of the historical approach towards epistemological issues. The article outlines the basic subject fields of research interest of the representatives of historical epistemology, reconstructs the genesis of this discipline, suggests possible substantiations of this event, draws parallels between the historical epistemology and cultural anthropology, as well as demonstrates the relevance and demand of the historical epistemology among the theoreticians of scientific cognition. In methodological aspect, the author looks beyond the traditional correspondence of the historical epistemology with other disciplines dedicated to the study of science (history of epistemology, history and philosophy of science) and aimed at determination of the subject field of historical epistemology that are often reduce to the doubts regarding the need for its existence. On the contrary, the goals and orientations of historical epistemology are viewed in a broad culturological context concerning their congruity with the general sociocultural and worldview trends of modernity (multiculturalism, Interdisiplinarity, tolerance, etc.). The scientific novelty consists in discovering potential of the historical epistemology to alternative solution of the traditional scientific tasks; similarity with other social disciplines, which opens opportunities for future interdisciplinary studies; as well is correspondence of the historical epistemology to the general trends of modernity that allows viewing it as a laboratory for the development of the new humanistic, culturological and sociological strategies.

Keywords: historical a priori, value, contemporaneity, cultural anthropology, scientific practice, historicism, historical epistemology, contingency, objectivity, crisis in epistemology

Abstract: The relevance of this topic is defined by the new twist in worldview antagonism between religion and atheism, creationism and evolutionism, materialism and idealism, anti-scientism and scientism at the current post-secular stage of development of the Russian society. The object of this research is the correlation and interaction of heuristic capabilities of such forms of spiritual culture as science and religion. The subject is the reflection of correlation and interaction of heuristic capabilities of science and religion, as well as their role and meaning for human life and society from the perspective of such sociocultural paradigms as scientism and anti-scientism. The research methods include comparative analysis, inductive generalization, modus tollens, analogy of relations as a variety of mediated conclusion, intellectual experiment and model schemes of dimensional relations between the notions. The scientific novelty is defined by the author’s reference to the problem of correlation and interaction from the standpoint of scientism and anti-scientism, science and religion, empirical and theoretical levels of scientific cognition, technique and technologies as problematic criterion of the truth, enlightenment and education, “physical” and metaphysical questions, and capabilities of scientific worldview. One of the conclusions lies in the statement that science, due to its instrumental nature, cannot be a worldview, while scientism is such, conferring the glorified by it science a bad favor by imposing the expectations that it is not able and does not have to deliver. Due to this, the scientifically interpreted antagonism between science and religion may be re-interpreted by anti-scientism into the peaceful existence and even mutual complementarity.

Keywords: enlightenment, technique, knowledge, truth, philosophy, antiscientism, scientism, religion, science, worldview

Abstract: The subject of this article is the problem of mathematical apprehension of the nature of the infinite. The author demonstrates the crucial incompatibility of the two approaches towards the mathematical infinity: the first of them was suggested by the German mathematician G. Cantor; the second was developed by the Austrian philosopher L. Wittgenstein. The article proves that Cantor’s approach to the infinite is paradigmatic for the attempts to substantiate mathematics. This approach was formulate as the “multiplicity theory”. A detailed analysis of ontological obligations and prerequisites of the “multiplicity theory” shows that the hypothesis of relevant infinity is the only possibility of the “strict” substantiation of mathematics as science. The conceptual analysis reveals that according to Cantor, namely the relevant infinity establishes conditions of the validity of mathematical reasoning. The comparative analysis of the positions of Cantor and Wittgenstein underlines that the latter rejected the need for external criteria of mathematical validity; it is based exclusively on following the rule. Special attention in this work deserves the author’s criticism of the concept of potential infinity and its institutional analogy – “the environment of free establishment”. Particularly the author points to crucial dependence of both, the potential infinity, and “the environment of free establishment” from now constantly presumed relevant infinity. The conclusion is made that Wittgenstein’s understanding of the rule, and thus the mathematical algorithm, makes the concept of infinity irrelevant for the mathematical problems equally proportionate to the irrelevancy of the very problem of mathematical foundations according to the Austrian philosopher.

Keywords: oughtness, operation, rule-following, potential infinity, rule, actual infinity, foundations of mathematics, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Georg Cantor, continuum

Abstract: The subject of this research is the new scientific discipline – the modern historical epistemology, which defines its task as a historical reference to the scientific practices that substantiate the emergence of basic scientific concepts, as well as clarification of the current philosophical problems of scientific studies. The attention is focused on the problem of identification of this discipline, specificity of the introduced historical scientific research. The author analyzes the two basic works that represent the modern historical epistemology – “Objectivity” by Lorraine Daston, Peter Galison and “Toward a History of Epistemic Things” by Hans-Jörg Rheinberger. The key method of identification and simultaneously the research method is the problematization, which in this case is understood as a reference to such intellectual discussions and challenges, to which the historical epistemology can become a relevant response. Problematization, first and foremost, addresses to the historical context, whereof is interpreted the specificity of the subject and method of the indicated discipline. The author determines the three contexts that serve to a disciplinary identification of historical epistemology – the discussion on interdisciplinary interaction of the history and the philosophy of science; crisis of scientific representations; and the criticism of universalism of the norms of social and cultural practices. The scientific novelty lies in combination of the aforementioned three context of identification of the historical epistemology.

Keywords: historical epistemology, social sciences, epistemic things, objectivity, problematization, imagination, scientific representatations, philosophy of science, history of science, disciplinary identification

Abstract: This article discusses the various views of philosophy and information theory upon the definition and structure of information, means of its acquisition and verification, different approaches towards the quantitative description of information, as well as L. Floridi’s approach to definition of information. The work highlights the basic types of formalizing the term “information”, types of information and information interaction, as well as the specificity of information in natural and humanitarian sciences, its completeness and validity. The author analyzes the appropriateness of the notion of “false fact”. The article defines, classifies, and examines different types of information and information interaction. The author conducts a comparative analysis of approaches of information theory and philosophy towards definition of information, provides definitions to the pragmatic information and pragmatic knowledge, and separates the information from knowledge. The article also analyzed the approach towards the information theory to establishment and structuring of information and its adequacy.

Keywords: information and communication technologies, information interaction, pragmatic knowledge, pragmatic information, semantic knowledge, semantic information, information, data, critical analysis of information, facts

Abstract: This article examines the causes and processes of transformation that take place in the modern epistemology, changes in correlation between the fundamental and applied knowledge, as well as determines the dominant role of the applied research. Special attention is given to the study of the phenomenon of technoscience, which testify to the changes in epistemological scheme of modern science. The author reveals that technoscience represents the “face of modern science”, and is characterized by the applied and strictly pragmatic orientation, interdisciplinary, and externalism. The article identifies the externalist essence of technoscience that manifests in the creation of new social institutions, which conduce the development of civil society. The need for harmonious development of the fundamental and applied knowledge is substantiated, which will serve as the basis for sustainable innovation technological evolution. The author actualizes the question of correlation between the “science and technology” and STS (Science and Technology Studies).

Keywords: Transformation of science, Convergence of sciences, Innovation economy, Pragmatism, Information society, Interdisiplinarity, Fundamental science, Applied science, STS, Technoscience

Abstract: The subject of this research is the metaphysics of the English philosopher of the late XIX – early XX century Francis Bradley.  The author examines the relation between metaphysical and special scientific knowledge within the framework of Bradley’s doctrine, particularly the crucial differences between metaphysics and science, which are based on the inherent to Bradley dichotomy of the visual and real, partial and whole, controversial and certain. The concept of the English philosopher correlates with the contemporary trends in development of special sciences and their attempts to create the final, all-encompassing scientific theory, formulate the ultimate explanation of reality. The article subjects to analysis the fundamental metaphysical and logical works of Francis Bradley, as well as the modern scientific and philosophical texts. The conclusion is made that in Bradley’s system, metaphysics plays the role of knowledge that approaches towards the adequate image of the Absolute reality. Special science are capable of expressing the incomplete truths, which are fairly productive within the boundaries of partial cognition of the reality. The attempts to overcome this limitation and solve metaphysical questions using the scientific means, determine the visible, partial, and controversial nature of the scientific knowledge. The provided in the article assessment of the trends in development of modern science underlines the legitimacy of limitations applied by metaphysics of F. Bradley upon the scientific knowledge. The author suggest an alternative to characteristic to Bradley understanding principle of determination of the subject of metaphysics.

Keywords: contradiction, integrity, partiality, appearance, reality, absolute idealism, certainty, science, limit of scientific knowledge

Abstract: The problem of science and the state in society is not new. But the special relevance it has acquired today in the light of changes in the socio-political and cultural situation in modern Russia. Especially when you consider that the problem of the relationship of the state towards science in modern Russia is widely discussed in Russian scientific literature. That is why this topic has been chosen as an object of the current study.The article focuses on the such issues as funding of scientific research; the creation of new research centers; position of academic and University research in the Russian scientific space; criteria of estimation of scientific activity; the level of citation of scientific publications; measures of promotion of the further development of Russian science and the role of government in supporting it.Analyzing this theme, the author has relied on theoretical generalizations contained in the works of Russian researchers. In addition, there has been used the method of sociological analysis, empirical method and statistical analysis based on the data of concrete sociological researches, conducted by Russian scientific and educational structures.Implementation of the problem of relationship of the state towards science in the modern Russian realities will help to clarify the methodological approaches to the definition of such concepts as: scientist in the conditions of market transformation of society, social and professional status of the scientist, the specific criteria of the prestige of scientific work. Moreover, it is to a certain extent will help to study the possibility of changing research policy in order to further development of domestic science.

Keywords: Citation, Publishing activity, Prestige of the scientific work, University science, Criteria of efficiency, Academic science, Size, Financing, State, Science

Abstract: The subject of this research is the G. W. Leibniz’s doctrine about the monads. The work reconstructs the main informative and conceptual creative approaches of the doctrine from the perspective of their importance for the modern philosophy and science. As the key conceptual elements, the author analyzes and uses the new linguistic forms: “metaphysical creative inputs”, “research metaphysical programs”, “creative approaches of metaphysics”. The creative inputs of metaphysics can be followed in methodological, ontological, gnoseological, and axiological aspects. It is underlined and these creative inputs as the fundamental information principles are ultimate and antecedent with regards to all other principles of the spiritual, theoretical, and practical activity. The author uses the new method of hermeneutic dialectics that allows determining the historical importance of Leibniz’s doctrine about the monads, as well as the logical connection of his ideas with the modern theories in cosmology. The scientific novelty lies in the fact, that in his doctrine Leibniz reveals and reconstructs the new essential creative inputs – substantial pluralism, discretization of the infinite continuum of the universe, its hierarchical organization and animateness of each element, as well as the principles of general distinction and identification of things. It is demonstrated that the contemporary cosmologists, promoting the anthropic principle (in a strong or weak version), in essence reformulate Leibniz’s creative approach about the nothing and something – why this particular world exists, which we observe and study.  

Keywords: opposition, dialectics, theodicy, monad, rationalism, method, programs, metaphysics, hermeneutics, creative inputs

Abstract: The Actor-Network Theory (ANT) is one of the most recent directions in the modern philosophy and sociology of science, associated with the names of Bruno Latour, Michel Callon, and John Law. The article analyzes the key aspects of the actor-network approach to the benefit of activeness of various objects. In the first part of the research it is demonstrated how Latour overcomes social constructivism through the metaphor of resistance. In the second part, the argument about the resistance is being clarified through the concepts of anti-essentialism and symmetry. The third part analyzes the criticism of the Edinburgh and Bath schools towards ANT within the sociology of scientific knowledge. The methods of conceptual analysis and reconstruction of intellectual context allow determining the positive and negative sides of the suggested by Latour solution. In the conclusion, the author introduces the difference between the paradox of absence and forms of co-presence. The actor-network approach virtually does not examine the nonhuman interactions in the absence of people; its theoreticians rather develop the new models of co-presence. Using the aforementioned difference, it could be explained why in future Latour refers to the political ecology and concept of the Anthropocene.

Keywords: social constructivism, subject-object dichotomy, Actor-Network Theory, actorness, agent-based model, objects, anti-essentialism, agnosticism, principle of symmetry, semiotics, political ecology.

Abstract: The subject of this research is the cultural-historical and philosophical-ethical aspects of the establishment and development of genetics. For more than to millenniums, various philosophical schools were differently interpreting the place of human in the world. The relevance of this topic is justified by the importance of the analysis of genetic ideas within the philosophical understanding of a human. Rapid development of genetics, bloom of biotechnologies generates today. and even clearly in future, the research of multiple worldview and methodological questions that contribute in to the philosophy of science. Scientific novelty in the philosophy of science consists in the ability of a researched to professionally analyze the achievements of the modern science in the aspects of worldview, epistemological, methodological, and sociocultural importance. The author determines the significance of genetic researches for explanation of the correlation between biological and socio-cultural factors in studying of the human conscience. Researches on the genetic structure of a human and their social consequences are being analyzed. All of these researches are extremely important for the future of humanity. Main conclusion consists in the following: human cognition does not seem possible without philosophical reasoning of the problems of study of biological foundation of psychics, as well as without the further in-depth understanding of interrelation between genetic and social in a human.

Keywords: filosofiya biologii, priroda cheloveka, geneticheskoe konstruirovanie, filosofiya nauki, proekt Roberta Grema, evgenika, izmeneniya cheloveka

Abstract: In this research Solonenko analyzes one of the important but understudied scientific issues in modern philosophical literature - the problem of causality. The author of the article traces back peculiarities of studying causality at all historical stages of scientific developing including classical, nonclassical and postclassical periods. In the course of analyzing causality, the author touches upon the the main three aspects of the problem, i.e. epistemological, synergetic and socio-cultural aspects. According to the author of the article, the analysis of these three aspects allows to privde a better insight into the contents and definition of causality as well as to understand the role perfomed by causality in the history of science in general and at the modern postnonclassical stage in particular. Based on researches of the Academy member V. Stepin, doctors of philosophy V. Arshinov, V. Budanov and other modern authors, the author of the article applies the systems-evolutionary method and synergetic methodological paradigm. As a result of long scientific inquiries at the end of the XXth - beginning of the XXIth centuries and after appearance of the synergetic methodology and paradigm in nonclassical science, all the previous causative concepts on the world were reviewed and the contemporary or so called postnonclassical stage started in scientific research and theoretical interpretation of causality. Based on the synergetic methodology, non-linear (or probabilistic) causality was discovered in contemporary postnonclassical science, the most brilliant examples being the quantum objects of the physical microworld and self-developing evolutionary systems of nature and society. 

Keywords: epistemological aspects of causality, cause-and-effect relations, indeterminism, neo-determinism, non-linear determinism, probabilistic causality, non-linear causality, causality, synergetic aspects of causality, socio-cultural aspects of causality

Abstract: The present research is devoted to the philosophical problem of the ontological content of symmetry based on the case study of symmetry in music and physics. The authors of the article have analyzed forms and types of symmetry in music and demonstrate that in music symmetry plays a methodological role of building the musical content and is a direct form of musical thinking. The use of symmetry in physics are being viewed based on the example of CPT symmetry. The authors demonstrate that this symmetry has an ontological nature and basically has the same forms and types like in music. The main research method is the analysis of physical texts and musicological researches, texts related to logic and general philosophical texts. The analysis of how symmetry is used in music and physics allows to conclude that symmetry has a logical nature and is a generalization of the logical law of identity. Symmetry is a resemblance of objects when one feature of objects is different and other features are identical. This approach allows to explain asymmetric distortion and view it a a methodological principle for constructing reality along with symmetry. 

Keywords: symmetry, music, ontology, space, time, matter, symmetry axis, logic, reality, predicate

Abstract: The term 'modus' has a long history and is widely used in different sciences and cultural practices. The modal approach is actively applied in psychology, social studies, logic, art history, philology and other humanitarian sciences. Modus is used in philosophy, too. However, each science has a particular meaning of modus. For example, harmonic modus in music is totally different from perception modalities or voices in grammar. The term 'modus' means absolutely different phenomena in particular branches of science.  Thus, the meaning of the term 'modus' is quite difficult to be defined and involves diferent concepts and phenomena. The research subject of the present article is the general meaning of the term 'modus' in different spheres of science and culture.  The definition of modus is given based on the comparison of different definitions of modus in Russian-English and Russian-German practice of translation and interpretation as well as on the analysis of this term in logic, music theory of rhythm and tonality and grammar. As a result, the general meaning of the term 'modus' is defined as a form of existence, image, manifestation and discovery. The researcher also finds the essential feature of modus. Describing manifestation of a phenomenon, modus also describes what is being manifested, and therefore modus refers to a phenomenon as the essence.  The term 'modus' does not define an accidental or temporary condition or transformation of the essence. On the contrary, modus means a principal form of existence and openness for the being as it is. Modes are usually created as a result of comparison of phenomena or plans and therefore modus can be defined as a structural-sense relation that independently exists in a particular image or form. 

Keywords: modus, modality, musical modus, modal harmony, logical modality, modus of syllogism, inclination, modus-dictum relations, modal verb, trope

Abstract: The subject research of the present article is the balance between science studies, historical methodology of science and philosophy of the history of science when studying the genesis of scientific knowledge. Offering different approaches to the development of the research targets, each of these disciplines sets its own methodological framework for both researches and validation criteria and therefore several models of the development of scientific knowledge with different groups of factors are being implemented. Nevertheless, in order to perform pragmatic functions such as the creation and substantiation of scientific policy, it is necessary to develop a more comprehensive model. Conceptual analysis of the main approaches to the history of science allows to discover whether the interaction between these disciplines is actually possible and what conditions for such interaction are. It is concluded that the condition for the disciplinary unity of the history of science is the expansion of the definition of science as an activity aimed at production of knowledge in a particular socio-cultural community. While philosophical methods allow to define specific features of the process of knowledge production, methodology sets validation criteria and science studies oriented at socio-cultural group of factors define the key mechanisms of the development of such knowledge production.

Keywords: history of science, scientific picture of the world, science about science, historical methodology of science, production of scientific knowledge, knowledge evaluation criteria, efficiency of scientific knowledge, procedures for knowledge validation, disciplinary unity.

Abstract: The conversation with A. Ogurtsov was written down as a part of the editorial project ‘Who makes philosophy in Russia today’ and devoted to the modern trends in Russian philosophy. The conversation touched upon works written by A. Ogurtsov, S. Neretina and other philosophers who all discussed the topic of the influence of philosophy on the ruling elites. A. Ogurtsov maintained the original position of the ethos of such a discipline as the philosophy of science. According to A. Ogurtsov, one of the grandiose goals when studying the history of philosophy is to understand this or that cultural environment — agorian, patronage, university or academic environment where researchers do not teach but focus solely on their research work. The interlocutors use the historical analysis methods allowing to define particular tendencies in understanding the philosophy and methodology of science. They also apply the hermeneutic approach allowing to interpret the modern situation in Russian philosophy. This is the last interview recorded right before A. Ogurstov’s death. In this conversation A. Ogurtsov outlined methodological concepts of the future science and explained the difference between ‘philosophy’ and ‘philosophical studies’. A. Ogurtsov insisted that the history of philosophy were not only about archives but involved creation of new categories in the process of solving the issues of theoretical philosophy.

Keywords: Ogurtsov, Nilogov, Neretina, modern Russian philosophy, philosophy in Russia, history of philosophy, methodology of science, concept, ethos of the philosophy of science, philosophical studies.

Abstract: Starting from the middle of the 20th century, philosophers have been discussing the role of social factors in the history of science. Social epistemology have become a logical continuation of this discussion about the ‘social nature of science’. However, this scheme of ‘classical and social epistemologies’ is too narrow to understand such a philosopher as B. Latour. In his conception he went outside the borders both classical and social epistemologies. In the 20th century researches do not stop at the stage of non-classical epistemology, either. They go further and begin to question ideas of non-classical epistemology as well.

Keywords: philosophy, science, theory of the actor-net, subject, object, society, nature, the first principle of symmetry, the second principle of symmetry, post-nonclassical epistemology.

Abstract: The article considers the inter-related processes of globalization of knowledge and formation of the global knowledge. The authors describe the evolutionary approach to global studies (in opposition to historical approach). According to the authors, studies of globalization cover different global processes and systems including global natural processes, globalization and global problems. Formation of global knowledge and global transformations in science are viewed from the point of view of transfer to sustainable development and formation of the sphere of mind

Keywords: philosophy, globalization, globalization of knowledge, global studies, global knowledge, global processes, global evolutionism, historical global studies, noosphere, noospheric science, society of knowledge, sustainable development, evolutionary global st