Abstract: This article discusses the problem of transformation of memorial practices of religious community in the context of modern cultural space. The subject of research is the memorial practices of religious communities, while the main goal is to determine their specificity in terms of intensification of post-secular trends and individualization of culture. The author reveals the initial correlation of religious community with the processes of maintaining collective identity and the ways of preserving collective remembrances; and later analyzes the process of their changeability, highlights the development stages and fundamental characteristics of religious communities. Based on functional approach proposed by E. Durkheim, M. Halbwachs and D. Hervieu-Léger, the article analyzes the situation of transformation of functions of collective memory and ways of referring to it in the context of spatial dynamics. The author’s main contribution consists in determination of transformation stages of the cultural space (culture of canon, culture of trauma, culture of dialogue), which allows indicating the prerequisites for secularization of memorial practices, as well as possibility for their studying in the context of post-secular trends. The conclusion is formulated that in modern culture, the religious community is established on the principles of individualization, homogenization and migration, which implies the refusal of presumption of continuity of collective memory, and transition towards its interpretation as a configurable element of the identity of religious community. The emerging gap between the need in religious beliefs and affiliation to the tradition creates a social request for the formation of local religious communities.

Keywords: functions, cultural space, identity, memorial practices, religious community, collective memory, cultural memory, individualization, migration, group

Abstract: The subject of this research is the modern philosophical conceptualization of the notions of “historical guilt”, “historical responsibility” and “historical forgiveness”. On the works of Paul Ricœur, Aleida Assmann, Hans Jonas the authors analyze the logical content and volume of these notions, as well as their correlation with such notions as “historical memory”, “historical consciousness” and “nation”. The article is based on the comparison of the Russian and German contexts of rethinking the historical experience. Analysis is conducted on the key aspects of the problematic of historical forgiveness. Results of the use of comparative method of research are applied to allow juxtaposing various interpretations of the notions of “historical guilt” and “historical responsibility”, as well as determining their logical content and volume. The novelty of this research consists in substantiation of the need for further philosophical interpretation of the problem of historical forgiveness. It was discovered that the content and volume of the notions of “historical guilt” and “historical responsibility” demonstrate a vivid trend towards expansion, which is related not only with reevaluation of modern philosophy of such notions as fear, desecration and repentance, but also refers to the notions of “nation” and “historical memory”. The concept of “nation” cannot serve as a reliable foundation for the historical memory, as well as historical reflection. The past should be evaluated leaning not on the national interests, but ethical criteria. The authors determine the specificity of the interpretation of historical guilt and historical responsibility within the framework of antagonistic, cosmopolitan and agnostic modes of functionality of historical memory. The author substantiates the importance of the role of historical consciousness within the discourse of historical responsibility, demonstrating the need to transition from ethics of persuasion towards ethics of responsibility in the process of analyzing modern forms of historical forgiveness.

Keywords: agonistic memory, ethics of responsibility, ethics of persuasion, philosophy of history, historical forgiveness, historical responsibility, historical guilt, cosmopolitan memory, antagonistic memory, historical consciousness

Abstract: The object of this research is the moral component of historical culture. Based on the analysis of foreign and national interpretations of historical culture, the article makes an attempt of philosophical analysis of the concept of “historical culture”. It is demonstrated that the historical culture is the configuration of space of interaction between the various types and forms of memory and memorial cultures. The author conducts a comparative analysis of the notions “historical culture”, “cultural memory”, “memorial culture”, as well as substantiates the thought on the viability of philosophical approach to understanding and interpretation of historical culture. Leaning on the works of J. Rüsen, D. Wolf, representatives of the cultural-historical theory of L. S. Vygotsky and activity approach, the conclusion is made on the historical culture as mediative environment of the system of narratives of the past. Namely the attribute of mediativeness is the paramount foundation for interpreting the philosophical status of this concept. A thought is substantiated that the moral component of historical culture represents not the static system of values and assessments of the past, but the combination of dynamic processes of assessing and coordinating the gaps between various value environments. The author analyzes the theses on conflictogenity of the space of moral component of historical culture, on the absence of synchronicity in dynamics of its values, on actualization in modern philosophy of the idea of transition from the ethics of persuasion towards the discourse of historical responsibility.

Keywords: historical responsibility, activity approach, ethics of history, morality, values, cultural memory, historical culture, historical consciousness, practical turn, philosophy of history

Abstract: This article attempts to compare the views of I. V. Kireyevsky and E. N. Trubetskoy on some fundamental philosophical-historical questions. Based on the example of their works, the author substantiates a thought that the major source of chiliastic vector of the Russian religious-philosophical thought of the XIX-XX centuries became the Old Russian religious culture with the worldview center – the myth of Kitezh. It is argued that in foundation of the gnoseological, ontological and social constructs of the representative of “Moscow school” lies the idea of spiritualization of a human and the world. The author determines the messianic features of Kireyevsky’s historiosophy, who wrote about the special calling of Russia and associated its revival with the beginning of the new ontological turn in world history. Having analyzed the philosophical-historical ideas of I. V. Kireyevsky and E. N. Trubetskoy, the author applies the dialogical paradigm, which allows comparing their views between not only each other, but also the views of other thinkers. It is underlined that Trubetskoy had ancestral ties with Slavophiles. It is also highlighted that if in the post-revolutionary period he became closer with the chiliastic ideal, he had never accepted the messianic ideas. The author also notes the particular interest of both philosophers to the problem of the freedom of will that was correlated in their works with the question about the role of personality in history. A conclusion is formulated, to which alongside with Kireyevsky and Trubetskoy had come the majority of Russian thinkers of the XIX century: “fascination” by the ideal is justified only through work and life achievement.

Keywords: primordial indivisibility, free will, missionism, chiliasm, messianism, Holy Rus, Kitezh, life achievement, island, theocracy

Abstract: This article analyzes the interpretation of historical cognition in semiotics of the culture of Y. M. Lotman. Special attention is given to the semiotic interpretation of the notions of “historical fact” and “historical event”. The author determines the place of Lotman’s semiotics in the context of classical (positivistic) and nonclassical (linguistically and hermeneutically oriented) philosophy of history and theory of historical writing, as well as clarifies the link between the interpretation of cultural communication in Lotman’s concept and semiotic aspect of historical cognition. The research reveals the similarities and differences of Lotman’s semiotics of history with the modern post-culturalist philosophy of history formulated in the works of H. White, F. Ankersmit, and C. Köllner. During the course of this study, the author applied the comparative method, problem-thematic way of analysis and presentation of material. It is demonstrated that the suggested by Lotman interpretation of the key notions of the historical writing theory (historical fact, historical process, historical reality) overcomes the extremes of objectivism and relativism in understanding of the historical past. The process of historical cognition is described in Lotman’s works in accordance with the model of cultural communication, in other words, as a dialogue between history and modernity that suggests the existence of common language between the culture of the past, which comprises the object of historical interest, and the culture of the present, the part and bearer of which is a historian.

Keywords: narrativism, constructivism, semiosphere, Lotman, Moscow-Tartu school, semiotics of culture, semiotics of history, historical fact, historical event, historical process

Abstract: This article analyzes the philosophical-historical concept of Ortega y Gasset. Special attention is given to the teaching on historical (life) mind and the notion of “historiology”. The author clarifies the correlation between the notions of “methodology of history”, “philosophy of history”, and “historiology”, as well as determines the key points of divergence of Ortega y Gasset with the historiosophical constructs of the German romanticism, Hegel, Kant, and Neo-Kantians. The article defines the place of historiosophical concept of the Spanish philosopher in the context of classical and nonclassical European philosophy of the XIX-XX centuries. The parallels are drawn between the Ortega y Gasset’s interpretation of history and the nonclassical philosophical-historical concepts of Dilthey, Croce, Heidegger, and Sartre. The most substantial ideas of philosophical-historical concept of Ortega y Gasset imply the following: refusal from the subject-object opposition in description and explanation of the history and life; interpretation of the past as “life experience”; postulating of isomorphism of the individual and social past; overcoming the conceptual gap between the empirical writing of history and philosophical contemplation of history, historical science, and historiosophy.

Keywords: existentialism, historical knowledge, historicity, vital reason, historical reason, methodology of history, philosophy of history, history, philosophy of life, Ortega y Gasset

Abstract: This article presents the worldview of Pyotr Andreyevich Vyazemsky (1792-1878) in a fairly broad historical perspective, from the spiritual prerequisites in the works of N. M. Karamzin and original worldview orientations and insights of the poet to determination of the prospects of further spiritual development within it (to Slavophilia, Vladimir Solovyov, and beginning of the period of religious-philosophical renaissance). Peculiarities of Vyazemsky’s outlook do not fit into the usual for modern readers, precise and unambiguously established categories of trends and directions. His creative path is multi-aspect, and in each separate case is complicated by the used by him contrast comparisons, inseparability of antipodes, harmonious accords that breathe and bloom in his works. The work applies the method of holistic organic approach, turned to the antinomy of monodualism, which overcomes the dualism of rational and ultrarational. Questions regarding the nature of Vyazemsky’s philosophical outlook were touched upon the researchers very briefly. It is associated with the difficulty of understanding the actual contents of the poet’s pursuits in his stiff life journey, which also involves us and allows speaking of not only Vyazemsky in the past, but our Pyotr Andreyevich Vyazemsky as well. The scientific novelty consists in another attempt to reveal the successive connection of the poetic heritage of Vyazemsky with the further spiritual development through determination of the commonness of approaches of the art of poetry and intuitive-philosophical insight into the foundations of rational consciousness based on the principle of continuity in antinomy of monodualism.  

Keywords: Solovyov, Khomyakov, Bulgakov, holistic, Trinity, tragism, Slavophilia, paradox, monism, Vyazemsky

Abstract: This article attempts to analyze the genesis of the Russian thinker P. Y. Chaadaev, as well as antinomy of his views upon the historical fate and mission of Russia in the global cultural-historical process. The author analyzes the process of reevaluation on the brink of the two latest centuries, and ways of overcoming and exit from this systemic crisis. The subject of this work is Chaadaev’s outlook upon the fate of Russia, humanity, and Christianity in their assemblage, development, and transformation that were studied in close relation with the history of spiritual and intellectual establishment of the thought. The scientific novelty consists in the fact that this work represents a special research of Chaadaev’s views upon the fate of Russia, in which his ideas are examined in combination, development, and transformation based on his well-known publications in tight connection with his spiritual and intellectual formation. Russian thinkers is studied not from the perspective of a representative of particular sociopolitical doctrine, but rather an “living” person with independent ideologies, who completely dedicates himself to cognition of this world, and repeatedly but sincerely changes his point of view upon the historical designation of Russia and Orthodoxy.

Keywords: Religion, Tradition, Values, Nihilism, Catholicism, Orthodoxy, Providentialism, West, Russia, P. Y. Chaadaev

Abstract: The subject of this research is the philosophical and cultural foundations of geopolitical control during the process of the world systemic changes when exiting the global crisis. The object is the philosophical concept of the development of geopoliticology. The relevance of this article is determined by the fact that in 2015 the global crisis is reviewed as a philosophical crisis of the world order and culture of geopolitical control. In the difficult situation of the application of sanctions and geopolitical confrontation, grows the importance of creation of an integral philosophical and cultural concept as a developed scientific theory in the area of geopolitical control. Namely, based on the advancement of the philosophy and culture, theory (methodology) of geopoliticology, the forecasting and scientific substantiation of the possible geopolitical crisis response measure become possible. The goal of this works is the development of philosophical and culturological concept of geopoliticology as the scientific foundation for geopolitical control. The main conclusions consist in the following: clarification of the notions “world order” and “geopolitical control” and their content; establishment of the philosophical and methodological foundations for geopoliticology as a science about world order and geopolitical control over geopolitical processes.

Keywords: theory, control, philosophy, culture, geopolitics, world order, functions, roles, management, forecasting

Abstract: The article discusses the process of reception of Byzantine law in Russia as part of the first Russian pseudomorphosis. Considerable attention is paid to the attempt of legal reforms undertaken by Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich shortly after the beginning of the Christianization of Russia. In particular, the replacement of the traditional vira (fine) as a punishment for murder and "razboynichestvo" with the death penalty is the subject of analysis. The comparison of the two components of the first Russian pseudomorphosis: religious (Christianization) and legal (transformation of laws and practices, the introduction of the ecclesiastical courts, and so on) was carried out. Methodologically, the author relied on traditional methods of analysis, synthesis, systematization as well as the principle of historicism. In his paper Korolev has widely used the conclusions of domestic and foreign philosophers, historians, legal experts and religious scholars resulting from their work on the matter. The author concludes that the legal norms and principles of Byzantium borrowed and adapted in Russia was extremely fragmented. Byzantine law was taking root primarily through the church and the ecclesiastical court. Pseudomorphosis turned out to be a successfully acting, effective mechanism in some areas, especially in religion, and not completely held in others. As a result, the Russian legal system developed not so much by pseudomorphic borrowing but grew out of the old "barbaric" customary law adopting Byzantine rules only partially. 

Keywords: Russia, blood feud, pseudomorphosis, Christianization, religion, law, reception, court, death penalty, Byzantium

Abstract: The article discusses the attitude of V. V. Rozanov to the classical Slavophilism that today grows important as an essential source of the original Russian philosophical tradition with its focus primarily on the philosophical-historical and anthropological issues. Special attention is paid to Rozanov's critical approach to their heritage as a result of Rozanov's antidogmatic philosophical thinking when Rozanov examines the same phenomenon from different angles. However, despite the criticism, the philosopher acknowledged the deep truth of the main ideas of the representatives of the "Moscow school", who in his opinion represented "the essence of Russia". The author also studies the hidden similarities in the works of Slavophiles and Rozanov, primarily related to the presence of the common key categories ("life", "faith", "love", "creativity", etc), as well as the common themes such as patriotism, family, Russian national character, asceticism and poverty as the main educational tool of the people, the hope for mercy, etc. but not juridism. When analyzing the heritage of Russian philosophers, the author of the article has applied the contextual analysis and personal approach assuming that philosophical theories, concepts, doctrines and ideas cannot be alienated and adequately understood outside the context of spiritual and practical life of their creators. When carrying out the review and analysis of Rozanov's philosophy of history and Slavophiles the researcher has used the dialogical paradigm that involves comparison of their ideas. Based on the analysis of the sources, the author concludes that the work of the representatives of the 'Moscow school' was an organic part of Rozanov's philosophical constructs. It is stated that although there were common categories and terms in the philosophy of Slavophiles and Rozanov's philosophy, those categories and terms were defined differently. The conclusion is that their common intellectual context allowed a continuous dialogue between Rozanov and Slavophiles where the ideas of the representatives of the 'Moscow school' were completed and adopted in accordance with the personal experience of the philosopher and in tune with the Silver Age. 

Keywords: Russian character, faith, Kireevsky, Homjakov, Rozanov, Silver Age, Slavophiles, life, gender

Abstract: Objectives of historical-philosophical research directly relate to the study of the adoption of world philosophy achievements by the Russian philosophical thought. This makes Russian neo-Kantianism to be an important topic to be under research because to understand Russian history, it is necessary to reconstruct each historical-philosophical movement. The object of research is the creative heritage of S. Hessen, F. Stepun, B. Yakovenko and their thoughts on the historical fate of Russia constitute the subject of research. The methodology of research involves the integrated historical and philosophical analysis of existing sources. In addition, the author has also used the inductive (from particular cases to the overall picture), biographic (to study life and ideology of the philosophers expressed in their private papers), comparative (to compare philosophers’ views within this philosophical school as well as with other philosophical schools) and logic research methods as well as general principles of historical philosophy to trace back the genesis of the ideas. Historical action will always remain an important issue for a discussion and therefore thoughts of S. Hessen, F. Stepun and B. Yakovenko on the historical fate of Russia are topical, too. In this research Storcheus demonstrates that the term ‘historiosophy’ gains an additional connotation and is understood as a holistic approach to the history on the fate and destiny of Russia. Such an approach may go beyond the scope of both history and philosophy.

Keywords: Baden school, neo-Kantianism, Russian philosophy, philosophy of history, historiosophy, F. Stepun, V. Yakovenko, S. Hessen, Wilhelm Windelband, Heinrich Rickert.

Abstract: Within the framework of his concept of pseudomorphic development of Russia, the author of the present article views the most important and crucial phase of the first Russian pseudomorphosis — adoption of Christianity as the national religion and Christianization of the Old Russia. The author bases himself on the supposition that Christianization was a pseudomorphic process by nature. The Russian macosociety acquired a socio-cultural ‘cover’ while the cultural content, in particular, paganism, was suppressed and therefore had to develop and survive in those confines for quite a long period of time. The term ‘pseudomorphosis’ was introduced by Spengler. The author of the present article views pseudomorphosis as the process imposing a certain cultural cover to macrosociety under which particular autochthonic contents or certain socio-cultural patterns, practices and life activities have to exist and develop further (or to exist and degrade). In particular, the author analyzes the phenomenon of the ‘dual faith’. The author distinguishes the dual faith developed before the Christianization of the Kievan Rus’ that assumed the parallel development of paganism and Christianity and the dual faith after adoption of Christianity by Vladimir Sviatoslavovich the Great when paganism existed under the Christian cover imposed on the Russian society. As a component of the pseudomorphic process the author also views the interaction between the Russian culture of chronicle writing and spoken pagan mythological tradition. The author notes that a new type of literature, the chronicle, transformed and deformed the mythological tradition created in pagan oral Russia. The author offers a term “local pseudomorphoses”, i.e. the pseudomorphoses appearing locally but containing all signs and mechanisms of global pseudomorphoses. As an example of the local pseudomorphosis the author studies the process of Christianization of pagan ‘foreigners’ in the Volga region and the Urals in the XVIII-XIX centuries. Finally, the author analyzes a peculiar phenomenon of pseudomorphic inversion when under the influence of certain circumstances the suppressed autochthonic content revives and creates a threat to the cultural cover imposed on society. In particular, the author discusses the phenomenon of Christened Muslims leaving Orthodoxy throughout the XIX century.

Keywords: pseudomorphosis, culture, Christianization, paganism, dual faith, folk religion, Islam, inversion, chronicles, Russia, Spengler.

Abstract: The author of the article discusses life acquisitions and losses related to the processes and states of violence and nonviolence of human against his mind and of the mind against human. The author outlines the rational borders of the existential experience and discusses the conceptual relations between different ideas, history, eternity, time, past and present. Fatenkov also reveals the special features of the mental or theoretical reenactment of the historical process. He also views and specifies the phenomenon of the end of history and analyzes special features of historiography. According to the author, one’s attitude to the ‘echo of Stalinism’ demonstrates how one feels about the actual past of Russia. Methodological basis of the article is the existential realism and dialects. The author views social historical experience as an essential part of one’s existential experience. According to the author, existential realism offers quite rational views on the end of history and at the same time denies scenarios of the end of history that are too ideology-driven. Only the two scenarios are accepted, the catastrophic and apocalyptic ones. The main feature of reenactment of the past in the situation of the end of history is the tendency towards shortening the distance between the interpreter and the events as well as collapsing of the time gap between particular events.

Keywords: present, past, event, existential, feeling, experience, human, history, historiography, the end of history.

Abstract: The author of the article compares the two different concepts of historical experience offered by Frank Aknersmit and Hans Gadamer. The interest for the phenomenon of historical experience as well as the narrative is one of the most typical features of the modern post-metaphysical philosophy of history. The author of the article pays special attention to the problem of the relation between historical experience and historical narrative. Gadamer’s and Ankersmit’s theories are viewed as the alternative and competing strategies in the sphere of the post-metaphysical philosophy of history. The corner stone in these two theories is the interpretation of the correspondence between historical experience and the language of historical narrative. In his research the author used hermeneutic methods, historical method and historicalcomparative method as well as the problem oriented analysis. Gadamer focused on the positive role of traditions and language as the ontological conditions of historical experience. Gadamer understood historical experience as the experience of appealing to traditions and their interpretation. Ankersmit focused on the negative role of the language. Ankersmit related the authenticity of historical experience to the ‘release from the language jail’. According to the author, the language of history description, on one hand, inevitably distorts the authentic (pre-linguistic) historical experience and, on the other hand, represents the only possible form of its expression.

Keywords: history, historicity, historical experience, language, historical narrative, nostalgia, philosophical hermeneutics, tradition, Gadamer, Ankersmit.

Abstract: Paul Ricœur (1913–2005) is famous for his studies of the phenomenon of human will and human as a subject assigning a specific meaning to the surrounding reality and human as a conscious individual providing material for the phenomenology of spirit. The present article is devoted to the philosopher’s views on objectivity and subjectivity in history that is important not only for philosophy and history but also for individual’s world perception in general. Historical and philosophical conception of Paul Ricœur pays attention at the subjectivism of a historian himself. This conception can be completed with such objective beginnings of historical research as materialistic interpretation of history and anthropological interpretation of history. Ricœur also offered some kind of a triad describing his point of view on the subjective aspects of historical research: the subject of the research, his subjectivity and so called ‘historical traces’. The latter hasn’t lost its importance even today.

Keywords: acceleration, anthropology, history, personal dependence, materialism, neoteny, object, statistics, subject, financial dependence.

Abstract: The article concerns specific features of fundamental historic processes in Russia (colonization, modernization, globalization). The author singles out such specific features as: hypertrophy of historical subject, persistent lack of resources, climatic determination, stadial violations, discrete character of these processes, their fragmentary and non-systemic character, reversibility of results, excessive costs, growing heterogenic character of the area. The author also analyzes the problems of social and cultural determination of the fundamental social transformations, such as phenomena of Russian ascesis and fellow elders. Much attention is paid to the influence of pseudo-morphosis and pseudo-morphic type of development upon the fundamental historic processes in Russia. Finally, the article includes analysis of the secular element of global historical processes, as well as the changes, which hypothetical transition of Russia into the phase of post-secular development and de-secularization have caused. Finally, the author points out the failure of the direct historical optimism, since history contains much more ambiguous and paradoxical matters, than its followers may imagine. In the point of view of the author, Russia does not firmly follow the path of the progress, rather its development is sinusoidal, and at times spiral.

Keywords: colonization, modernization, globalization, pseudo-morphosis, Russian ascesis, secularization, de-secularization, religion, church, progress.

Abstract: The article presents the very first attempt to perform a positive reconstruction of Nihilistic Revolution outlined by Friedrich Nietzsche in his late works (1882-1888). Even though it was rarely noticeable in his works published during the philosopher’s life, the theory of nihilistic revolution showed itself in a form of certain sayings and expressions and remarks included in his ‘Will to Power’ which had never been finished. As a result of the ‘will to power’ and ‘eternal coming back’ developed by the philosopher during that period, the concept of nihilistic revolution opposed to social-democratic theories of social development, socialistic and Darwinism theories which dominated in XIX century. Completely denying the historical heritage of XVII-XVIII philosophy, Nietzsche developed the idea of ‘reevaluation’ and replaced Christian nihilism, social justice and Christian retribution with the idea of the Great Politcy and new social anthropology, i.e. the theory of a ‘superman’. When working on his ideas of nihilistic revolution, the philosopher developed a new time of reasoning which he called ‘Divine Image of Thought’. Applying the motto Sapere audi discovered by Kant, Nietzsche followed many socialistic and reformatory ideas to their logical end. The philosopher also formulated many ideas as a forecast of the future totalitarian regime of national states in XX century and anticipates global political activities of the ‘Masters of Earth’ and methods of future political order. In the process of writing his theory of nihilistic revolution, Nietzsche raises a question about the ‘social price’ or ressentiment of the future social development, methods of social development of the humankind in general, purposes of such development and the place of philosophy in this development.

Keywords: philosophy, power, will, nihilism, super-man, Darwinism, rationalism, utopia, revolution, Enlightenment.

Abstract: The article is devoted to the philosophical contents of the messianic mythologema ‘Moscow is the Third Rome’ within the framework of the history of Russian social ideas. Analyzing metaphysics of the national mesianship, the author discovers the main vectors of how the idea of Moscow as the Third Rome influenced the formation and development of the scope of problems in Russian philosophy of history.

Keywords: philosophy, messianism, national identity, false nationalism, chosen nation, sovereignty, Russian Schism, philosophy of history, meaning of history, messiahship concept, national — universal, eschatology.

Abstract: The article describes peculiarities of the fundamental historical processes in Russia such as modernization, colonization and globalization. The Author underline that all these processes have a very complex structure — not only because they combine numerous elements, but also because they involve numerous differently directed vectors. In accordance with this presumption, the author analyze the entire symbiotic process of modernization/de-modernization, the process of de-colonization as a inevitable product of the type of colonization which has been dominating in Russia throughout centuries as well as contradictions of globalization process from the point of view of asynchrony of their economic and socio-cultural elements.

Keywords: philosophy, multi-vector nature, modernization, de-modernization, archaicism, colonization, de-colonization, globalization, government, government technologies.

Abstract: The article is devoted to one of the key ideas introduced by Alexander Herzen — his concept of the ‘tumbled improvisation of history’ allowing to adequately represent the philosopher’s views on the problem of variability of the historical process as well as the role of accident and goal-oriented human activity. The author o the article interprets these ideas from the point of view of the modern social studies and philosophy.

Keywords: philosophy, history, nonlinearity of the historical process, historical improvisation, accident, possibility, chaos, order, progress, human as a subject of history.

Abstract: The article shows that historical consciousness is a complex and diversified phenomenon of social life. It is also viewed as a temporary shift of all kinds of social consciousness. At the same time, historical consciousness is a method of scientific knowledge, i. e. historical consciousness might be defined as a subject’s thought which has a certain history and meaning.

Keywords: philosophy, historical consciousness, historical science, methods of scientific research, principles o historicism, knowledge, historical knowledge, thinking, social consciousness.

Abstract: The article describes modern views on development of the society. The author proves the failure of globalization ideologists who base their studies on Darwin’s conception to solve economic and socio-cultural crises of the modern age. It is shown that it is necessary to change relations between the West and the East taking into account historical experience which evidently shows variability of models and stages in development of the society.

Keywords: philosophy, history, succession, globalization, cognition, integration, processes, national, values, civilization.

Abstract: History of Russian social and political thought reflects complicated and contradictive nature and evolution of the state and municipal government, the topic of relations between the two being one of the key and central topics for discussion. In the conflict of ideas, there formed basic world outlook provisions, which have became the value basis for the Russian society, its social and political organization.

Keywords: philosophy, Russia, history, state, municipal self-government, relations, center, periphery, nature, evolution

Abstract: The article is devoted to N. N. Strakhov’s philosophy of history, - one of the most studies topics in the history of the Russian thought. The author of the article assumes that it is ossible to study the prerequisites of Strakhov’s philosophy of history addressing to his ‘archive of the epoch’ (T. G. Schedrin’s term), - actual conversations of Strakhov with his contemporaries. As the basis of Strakhov’s philosophy of history the author views the united nature of values

Keywords: philosophy, philosophy of history, understanding from the point of history, freethinking, self-abasement, orientation at the second person, free conservatism

Abstract: The article studies the opposition between Greeks and Persians in Herodotus’ works. Through this polarization Herodotus defined what freedom was. Peculiarities of the ‘Non-Greek’ world described by the Ancient Greek historian are analyzed by modern historiographers.

Keywords: philosophy, Hellenes, Barbarians, Persians, Herodotus, Greek superiority, freedom, Hellene centrism, Hellas, foreigner, historiography

Abstract: The economic crisis today is just one of the moments of the critical epoch of the world history over the past hundred of years. Perhaps, our country was influenced by the epoch even more than all the others. Are there any objective perspectives of a better situation in Russia in the nearest future? If there is, then what are they based on? And how do they depend on the Russian mentality? These issues are very interesting and topical for philosophy of culture as well.

Keywords: philosophy, creation of culture, history, Russian mentality, tradition, innovation, stabilization, crisis, globalization, transferred consciousness, evolution, revolution, harmonization of ethical beginnings

Abstract: The article shows that origins of morals and law were a grand event in the process of culture development. The author analyzed the mechanisms of cultural genesis and viewed the image of human as it is understood from the point of views of morals.

Keywords: philosophy, morals, law, cultural genesis, system of morals, human, culture, sociogenesis, unconsciousness

Keywords: filosofiya, svoboda, sub'ekt istorii, progress obshchestvennogo razvitiya, globalizatsiya, nauchno-tekhnicheskaya revolyutsiya, krizis

Abstract: The article is devoted to the philosophy by Panaetius of Rhodes, the founder of the so called “Middle Stoa” and one of the famous Greek philosophers who was close to Scipio’s club and contributed to Roman philosophy. The author analyzed how much Panaetius’ doctrines depended on the Early Stoa teachings. The author also reviewed Panaetius’ approach to logic, knowledge theory, natural philosophy and ethics.

Keywords: philosophy, stoicism, Panaetius, logic, natural philosophy, divination, accident, providence, inflammation, sympathy.

Abstract: Abstract: based on original sources, the author of the article revealed the main peculiarities of religious knowledge in Orthodoxy such as: the leading role of faith and Holy Scripture (the Bible), the principle of learning “the like” (soul and God), introspection (self-learning), equal meaning of the words “knowing” and “possessing” and etc. The author showed the same nature of the religious knowledge and God learning and described the main methods, forms and ways to learning God created during the very first centuries of Orthodoxy.

Keywords: philosophy, religion, Orthodoxy, epistemology, culture, theology, patristic, self-learning, God learning.

Abstract: history of the Western philosophy starts with Pythagoras’ initiative when he broke up with the hieratic tradition of the religious and mythological way of thinking, at his own will taking up the responsibilities of a hierophant and declaring the human soul (monade) as the starting point in moving towards the all-encompassing knowledge, so called “godly wisdom”. In this respect, the author viewed the psychological implication of history of the Western philosophy and nowadays fall into the unconscious, appraised psychotherapy and psychoanalysis from the “magic” point of view, talked about the overall obsession of a person and interpreted the myth about the unconscious as an invention of a will towards power.

Keywords: philosophy, symbol, will, history, unconsciousness, soul, myth, psychoanalysis, being, insanity.

Abstract: the author analyzed modernization processes in Russia in the 20th century, in particular, Stolypin’s land reform, Stalin’s modernization in the 30s, Gorbachev’s perestroika and post Soviet modernization in 1991-1998. According to the author, Russian modernization is not just the process ongoing in the split society, it is also an inner contradictory process causing and deepening that split and, finally, it is an attempt to overcome that split, such an attempt being forced in most cases. History shows that radical modernization aggravates the split of the society and provokes archaization, the latter is either caused by the modernization itself or arising from the conformists’ reaction to it. “Soft” or gradual modernization does not solve the problems the government and the society are facing but creates basis for future crises. In the perspective, modernization in Russia may benefit from building a compromise model which would achieve the balance between the government’ and the civil society’s interests.

Keywords: modernization, demodernization, reform, archaization, split, traditionalism, liberalism, disciplinization, governing technologies.

Abstract: The article is dedicated to the peculiarity of modernization processes in Russia from the last third of the 17th century (patriarch Nikon’s reforms) up to the first post-Soviet modernization in the 1990s. The author of the article showed that one of the main features of the Russian modernization process was the symbiotic nature of modernization/demodernization and overcoming the technological gap by the means of archaization of the political sphere and the system of social relations. In the first part of the article the author viewed such models of the Russian modernization as patriarch Nikon’s church reform, Peter’s modernization in the first quarter of the 18th century, the abolition of serfdom and corresponding reforms in the 60s of the 19th century.

Keywords: modernization, demodernization, reform, archaization, secession, traditionalism, liberalism, disciplinization, technology of the government.

Abstract: The author distinguished between historical and ahistorical events. The latter included such natural phenomena as volcanic eruption, flood and eclipse. The author underlined that visible physical activity lacking the intention is not considered as “activity” at all. Speaking of the “purpose” of a historical event, the author meant intentions, desires and goals guiding participants of the event. He also interpreted “meaning” or “significance” as a combination of all its environmental and social consequences.

Abstract: The article discusses an increasing interest in I. Bunin in the USSR and “new” Russia. The author dispels simplest common views on the Great Russian writer. For instance, the author notes that Bunin did not stand above the politics and underlines the relevance of Bunin’s poems and political essays.

Abstract: Starting from ancient philosophers, many scientists have tried to define laws of human evolution by analyzing a complicated pattern of historical events. However, human existence in the society is a way too complicated and too often different values and ideologies result in varying interpretations of history, contrary opinions on the present historical situation and existence of both pessimistic and optimistic views on the future of the humanity.