Abstract: According to I. Kant, reflecting on reality, the mind inevitably comes to the idea of an entity possessing the highest perfection and absolutely necessary by its nature. The idea of God as the supreme being is considered by transcendental theology as a hypothesis of pure reason, without which its practical application is impossible. The author of the article explores why and how the concept of God plays a coordinating role in the work of speculative reason. In this regard, the structure and tasks of Kant's transcendental theology are discussed, its problematic nature as a form of cognition, the prerequisites for the emergence of the idea of God in pure reason, the possibility of proving His existence solely based on a priori concepts, the problem of excluding empirical definitions from the idea of God. The idea of God is analyzed in the light of the natural tasks of the mind formulated by Kant, as a necessary condition for the possibility of achieving them.  The study is based on the analysis of Kantian texts. These are mainly the works "The only possible basis for proving the existence of God" (1763), the First and Second criticisms, manuscripts from 1778-1780 (the so-called materials for the "Critique of Pure Reason"), Lectures on Rational Theology of the winter semester of 1783/84, etc. As a result of the research, it is shown that the idea of God acts as an unprovable position, which, nevertheless, the mind must accept, since this is necessary for the completeness of its application. The author explains the organizing role of the concept of God by its a priori "genetic" connection with such categories of pure reason as reality and necessity. The concept of God is "involved" in the work of these categories and is simultaneously shaped by their application. It allows, ultimately, to think about the order and expediency of reality and satisfies the requirement of reason to be economical with respect to the number of explanatory principles. The author's special contribution to the research of the topic is to demonstrate the specifics of the transcendental approach to the stated problem. It is shown that the unprovability of the existence of God is a necessary element of transcendental theology. The very idea of the supreme essence appears in it as a limit, indicating the limit of the possibilities of the mind. In this regard, it is productive, as it allows us to idealize, model consciousness and construct a different type of rationality within the boundaries of our understanding of our own mind.

Keywords: limits of applicability of reason, existence, reality, possibility, necessity, transcendental fraud, arguments of the existence of God, a priori, space, regulative principles of reason

Abstract: The author examines the reality of an object in a situation. Such a given is due to the corresponding actual (intentional) property that forms the situation with the studied object in the act of attention. In a situation, an object has its own way of being – a mode. Modes are conditionally divided into strong and weak. In epistemological terms, the reality of an object in a situation has two states relative to each other, depending on the position of the cognizing subject in relation to this object. In accordance with this, the object is known either intensionally or extensionally. A phenomenological approach is used. The difference between internal and external observers in the constituted situation is shown. Such a distinction does not occur at all, but depends on the actual property in the situation. The act of cognition introduces asymmetry into the reality of its relational states: one of them will be relevant (with a strong mode), the other – only possible (with a weak mode) in the same situation. This asymmetry, in particular, manifests itself in wave-particle dualism and is expressed through the principles of complementarity and uncertainty. In particular, it is shown that the complementarity principle indicates the duality of the given object, expressed through its relational states, and the uncertainty principle indicates the difference of modes (strong and weak) of these states in the same situation. In support of what has been said, some other examples from physics, as well as from mathematics and everyday life are given.

Keywords: principle of relativity, internal observer, experiment in physics, wave-particle dualism, cardinal numbers, object modus, the complementarity principle, potential infinity, uncertainty principle, canonically conjugate quantities

Abstract: The subject of article is a critical analysis of the objectification of logic and, in particular, the idea of its embodiment in the living. The question of the essence and boundaries of the concept of bio-logic is raised and considered. The problem of logics's embodiment raises from its fuzzy ontological status. The novelty of the study lies in that it shows that the solution of the question of bio-logic directly depends on the question of the essence of logics as such, the views on which has gone through strong transformations during its history. Idea of logic's objectivization has became possible due to not only conceptual philosophical constructions, but also the computational revolution, which made practical implementation of logical principles in the functioning of computing machines possible. Concept of logic has subtly expanded and transformed into the idea of orderliness and algorithmicity. It is shown that such an expansive interpretation of the logical is not applicable to biosystems, because they are living totalities, where everything is reciprocal and continuously interconnected. Even such computationally similar systems as the genome and the brain turn out to be autopoietic entities that nonlinearly create themselves without following formal rules. Paradoxically, the intelligence, which was considered the cradle of logic, also turns out to be flexible and adaptive, because it is also rooted in biology. The vital fundament of living intelligence prevents its artificial modelling through logico-computational and algorithmic phenomena. Main conclusion is that question of bio-logic depends on the optics of considering logic as such, and is also associated with bio-ontology, an understanding of the essence of life. Our analysis shows that there are not sufficient grounds to recognize the existence of a special biological logic immanent to living things, which, however, has potential as a philosophical and scientific metaphor.

Keywords: brain, genome, algorithm, computation, autopoiesis, teleonomy, teleology, bio-logic, logic, intelligence

Abstract: The article focuses on the problems associated with the need to express in the language of science in a consistent way the movement and various kinds of changes taking place in the objective world by developing logics that would be tolerant of logical contradictions. The paper presents a brief history of the creation of paraconsistent (paraconsistent) logics, in which logical contradictions turned out to be quite permissible. It is noted that the priority in their development belongs to Russian scientists N. A. Vasiliev and I. E. Orlov, as well as Polish philosophers and logicians Y. Lukasevich and S. Yaskovsky; that since the seventies of the last century, the development of paraconsistent logics has assumed an international character; that interest in these logics is not abating at the present time. The possibilities of using paraconsistent logics presented in the works of foreign and domestic philosophers and logicians for the formalization of dialectics are discussed. The positive role of these logics is shown in solving many paradoxes in the foundations of classical propositional calculation and predicate logic, as well as in order to limit undesirable consequences when using IT technologies related to the processing of inconsistent or contradictory information. It is concluded that the use of paranoherent logics in the construction of models of individual fragments of dialectics contributes to its development as logic and as ontology, and indicates that the apparatus of non-classical logics as a whole is a very powerful means of studying and explaining many problems of theoretical cognition.

Keywords: para-contradictory logic, para-consistency, paradox, science, logic of change, relevant logic, dialectical temporal logic, dialectics, logical contradiction, objective contradiction

Abstract: The review of the monograph of the Finnish philosopher Tapio Koski "Phenomenology and Philosophy of Running", which has not been introduced into the sphere of domestic research of the philosophy of sports, is presented. The versatility of long-distance running" (2015). The subject of T. Koski's research is existential experiences based on the ontic contact of the body and the world. The author raises the question of how, with the help of stayer running, a person can explore and use his spiritual and physical potential, making his way to the authentic self. The ways of describing the running experience for T. Koski are the phenomenology of the body of M. Merleau-Ponty and the fundamental ontology of M. Heidegger, as well as some concepts of Eastern philosophy aimed at achieving the bodily and spiritual integrity of a person. T. Koski justifies the significance of running experiences for a person by the fact that they reveal some aspects of her being that are not presented to the "pure" consciousness that ignores bodily experience. These include "empirical cores", on the basis of which Dasein can realize its capabilities: the elimination of conflict between subject and object; pacification; full presence in the present; a sense of the power of life, "enlightenment", etc. Thanks to the running actualization, the "empirical cores" allow us to hear the "call of conscience" addressed to us and intuitively perceived, directing the individual to his own path of life. Around these "cores" other experiences are organized, channeling a person's life to authenticity and harmony with the world, on their basis the social being of the individual is carried out, which is why T. Koski considers them to have a fundamental ethical nature. The Finnish philosopher sees the significance of his research in the intensification of the study of the cultural content of running practices and the substantiation of the metaphysical components of stayer running, which can help to comprehend existentially important experiences for a "person running" and better understand the goals of his existence.

Keywords: body, authenticity, existence, sports philosophy, experiential cores, humanism, phenomenology, stayer run, phronesis, kairos