Abstract: The subject of study is classification of characters by the German philosopher and psychologist Eduard Spranger. People have long time ago noticed that the human has many faces. Socrates and Don Quixote, Falstaff and Maria Theresa, Sancho Panza and marquis de Sade, Alexander of Macedon and Harun who “ran faster than a fallow deer”, Marcus Aurelius and Dantes. Philosophers and historians sought similar and different traits in human beings. We see an individual as he conveys himself: as he moves, loves and feels, as his way of life is, as his needs, goals and longings, his ideals are and how he shapes them, what values drive him, what and how he does, realizes, creates. There are many approaches to dividing individuals as carriers of a character or type. The article offers a critical analysis of Spranger’s conception.The author uses methods and principles of philosophical anthropology. He takes into account many attempts at creating classifications of human characters. He analyzes psychological conceptions, too. In particular, the characterology of E.Spranger is compared with the typology of C.G.Jung.The characterology of Spranger becomes a subject of critical analysis for the first type in Russian literature. The author points to the arbitrariness of the principle from which the German philosopher proceeds when he describes various spiritual attitudes underlying some way of life or another. As a rule, one of such attitudes prevails in activities of a particular individual. Singling out fundamental values to which a human being is oriented in his behaviour and which finally predetermine him, Spranger does not take into account that in each of these spheres there can often be found individuals with directly opposite psychic properties and specific traits. In the article his principle is characterized as abstract.

Keywords: forms of life, spiritual sphere, psyche, typology, character, personality, man, behaviour, mind, affects

Abstract: The main research subject of the present article is the new understanding of the philosophical concept 'being' as a result of different interpretations of being as 'being of information' or 'informational being' in different branches of science. The scope of research includes physical and mathemathical sciences that interpret the nature of logics, mathematics and calculations. The research subject also involves the definition of consciousness in Husserl's phenomenology due to the fact that contemporary quantum physics and astronomy study the role of the scientific mind. Noteworthy, that the focus is made on the most recent achievements in these branches of science. In his research Yakovlev carries out a comparative research of modern approaches to definitions of information in relation to Husserl's phenomenology and contemporary theories of mind. Yakovlev also offers a new approach to the problem of being based on information theories. He makes an assumption that infomation reality (being of information) is becoming synonymous to the objective reality. Information reality (or informational being) is understood as the fundamental nature of the universe and being of an individual consciousness is understood as a fractal of this reality. 

Keywords: information, being, reality, consciousness, mathematics, phenomenology, creativity, synergetics, physics, absolute

Abstract: The article is devoted to the present condition, prospects and problem situations with regard to philosophical, social and humanitarian aspects of scientific research of cosmos and cosmic studies (cosmonautics). In his article Mapelman analyzes how the concept of cosmos and cosmonautics have been developing within the framework of history of science and history of philosophy. Mapelman also shares evaluations of contemporary researches of philosophical issues of cosmos and cosmonautics. The author provides a description of the philosophical issues of cosmonautics that are being solved witin the framework of the Readings devoted to the scientific heritage and development of Konstantin Tsiolkovsky's ideas. To achieve the research objectives, Mapelman uses the methods of systematization, critical analysis, comparison, text reconstruction, historical explanation, etc. The author outlines the following philosophical issues that were first discovered during the Readings: whether 'cosmic philosophy' can be actually developed; Russian cosmism, branches and philosophers; improvement of the contemporary picture of the world taking into account the cosmic scale of such improvement; anthropic principle, the place and role of the principle in cosmic philosophy; global issues of the humankind in terms of the cosmic perspective of social development; cosmic civilization, features and possibilities for existence; the problem of immortality, life and death in the Universe; cosmic ethics and moral principles of cosmonautics; axiological aspect of cosmic activity and transformations; the need to explore the cosmic space; influence of the political, military, social, economic and ideological factors on the development of national cosmic programs; research of social and philosophical issues of extra-terrestrial civilizations and the future of our own civilization. 

Keywords: cosmos, cosmonautics, philosophical research, history of science, cosmic philosophy, Russian cosmism, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, socio-humanitarian issues, humanitarian expertise, futurology (futures studies)

Abstract: The research subject of this article is an outlook on the problem of spirituality in the context of holistic approach of the Teaching of Living Ethics. The modern society in its theoretical understanding the world and man follows the new European tradition of abstract thinking. This circumstance is seen as the cause of inaccuracy emerging in the process of thinking and, alongside with it, problems and crises in the life of society. Besides that, due to its specificity, abstract thinking doesn’t allow to create a wholesome system of understanding the world in which the phenomenon of spirituality would be realized in all its practical significance for life.The philosophical tradition of holistic approach offers a chance to solve the above mentioned problems. Its perfect embodiment is the Teaching of Living Ethics – the philosophy of cosmic thinking.The novelty of the research is caused by the fact that, viewed in this context, the holistic approach which is based on the ideological principle of Three-Hypostasis Essence of the Absolute creates a base for an integral synthetic perception of the world and man in it and lays the foundations of universal research methodology of synthesis. This approach allows us to get an answer to the question about the sense and significance of spirituality in man’s life and in its cosmic evolution, contributes to ethical, aesthetical and spiritual improvement of man and society.

Keywords: cosmic thinking, a holistic approach, synthesis, Three-Hypostasis Essence of the Absolute, Living Ethics, Eternity, Infinity, spirituality, Spiral Movement, Cosmic Magnet

Abstract: The article is devoted to the definitions of criteria of civilization. According to the author, this criteria include driving values of man. Depending on the level of acceptance of these values, a partiular profile of civilizations is created. Initial values are the same for all civilizations. It is only the extent to whih the society accepts them which differs. The profile of the Russian civilization described by the author is compared to the graph of the country's vitality. The comparison of these parameters proves that at the moments of spiritual growth of Russia when the Russian nation get close to categorial man, the power and influence of Russia grow as well. The quantitative profile of the Russian civilization has been created based on surveys and expert evaluation. In his research Sulakshin uses historical and comparative approaches to compare values of different civilizations. The author offers a quantitative evaluation of civilizations which is a totally new approach to civilization studies. Based on this approach, Sulakshin provides a quantitative proof that Russia is not Europe but a completely different civilization. 

Keywords: humanification (anthropomorphization), Russia, quantitative profile, expert evaluation, driving values, categorial man, values, civilization, ideal, vitality

Abstract: The article considers the mutual relationship between certain provisions and ideas in cartesianism and psychoanalysis. By anayzing various texts of Descartes and Freud, the author shows the influence of cartesianism on the key concepts of psychoanalysis. The article is focused on such categories as 'repression' and 'trace'. The author shows that cartesianism already deals with a completely new definition of temporalization and criticises metaphysics of presence which was further developed by psychoanalysis and deconstruction. The article refers to the structure of Cartesian discourse focusing on the metaphor of the "true path" which serves as the methodological basis and reference point of Descartes' philosophy. The philosophy of Descartes already contains the paradigmal orientation at the rejection of the definition of existence as something present. Long before Freud he showed that the trace is not only a simple investment in the project of presence but it is the structure that makes repression possible. Appealing to the phenomenon of memory in Descartes' philosophy, the author shows that the fundamental disintegration of the Cartesian subject can be already found at this level. 

Keywords: psychoanalysis, repression, trace, Derrida, Freud, Cartesianism, Descartes, memory, deconstruction, method

Abstract: The term 'modus' has a long history and is widely used in different sciences and cultural practices. The modal approach is actively applied in psychology, social studies, logic, art history, philology and other humanitarian sciences. Modus is used in philosophy, too. However, each science has a particular meaning of modus. For example, harmonic modus in music is totally different from perception modalities or voices in grammar. The term 'modus' means absolutely different phenomena in particular branches of science.  Thus, the meaning of the term 'modus' is quite difficult to be defined and involves diferent concepts and phenomena. The research subject of the present article is the general meaning of the term 'modus' in different spheres of science and culture.  The definition of modus is given based on the comparison of different definitions of modus in Russian-English and Russian-German practice of translation and interpretation as well as on the analysis of this term in logic, music theory of rhythm and tonality and grammar. As a result, the general meaning of the term 'modus' is defined as a form of existence, image, manifestation and discovery. The researcher also finds the essential feature of modus. Describing manifestation of a phenomenon, modus also describes what is being manifested, and therefore modus refers to a phenomenon as the essence.  The term 'modus' does not define an accidental or temporary condition or transformation of the essence. On the contrary, modus means a principal form of existence and openness for the being as it is. Modes are usually created as a result of comparison of phenomena or plans and therefore modus can be defined as a structural-sense relation that independently exists in a particular image or form. 

Keywords: modus, modality, musical modus, modal harmony, logical modality, modus of syllogism, inclination, modus-dictum relations, modal verb, trope

Abstract: Analysts and philosophers talk about the shrinkage of the social space and time. In her article Vladimirova views social communication and social information as a form and content of the informational aspect of social interaction. There is a growing number of evolutionary variation and selection mechanisms that have proved to be effective or socially adjustable. This makes the social evolution even faster (Niklas Luhmann). Social practices of the post-modern age acquire completely different characteristics. The research subject is the peculiarities of social practices caused by the growth in the intensity of social information exchange. Theoretical and methodological grounds of the research include Niklas Luhmann's neoclassical evolution theory, Jean Baudrillard's concept of simulation, V. Kemerov's concept of sociality, D. Ivanov's, Aleksey Losev's, Zygmunt Bauman's and Manuel Castells' ideas. Vladimirova also notes that the following peculiarities of social practices result from the growth in the intensity of information flows: risk and uncertainty, distance and abstraction. Networks define peculiarities of the contemporary practice  under the conditions of information flows. As an instrumental activity, network allows to develop different schemes of numerous relations and connections.  Vladimirova offers a hypothesis that evoluation of the social activity or practice involves the birth, development and potential death of some 'rational sociality' that is based on the increase of the information flow. Social practice has the following forms of sociality: absolute sociality (institutions), relative sociality (networks), situational and local sociality (particular interactions) and altersociality (space of flows) (D. Ivanov). On the other hand, Losev's perception of the 'name of a thing' as a piece of information is based on different features of the intensity of the information process that can be referred to absolute, relative, situational sociality and altersociality. Noteworthy, that one of the peculiarities of contemporary social practices is the colonization of the social relations by particular worldviews and patterns (Zygmunt Bauman) and orientation at 'network-based ahistoric space of flows' to the disadvantage of sustainability of social cultural codes (Manuel Castells).

Keywords: peculiarities of practices, intensity of communication, information flows, risk, uncertainty, abstraction, distance, abstractiveness, social colonization, network orientation, sociality forms, network

Abstract: The object of the present research article is the process of transformation of social forms of religion in the globalized society. The research subject is the features of the contemporary religious situation which, under the conditions of virtualization and strengthening of a saturation of information streams, turns into a totally new communication space. One of its features is a new opportunity to have an impact on the consciousness of believers. Using the technology of memetics, the author of the present article conducts a research of modern technologies of social influence and manipulating consciousness of new generation of believers for the purpose of detection of its specifics. Based on opportunities of comparative and structural approaches, the author carries out the analysis of features, algorithms and mechanisms of social influence and manipulation with consciousness of believers in terms of contemporary culture. This research article is the first one to prove that memetics is focused only on modern processes of social transformation of the contemporary religious situation and religion which continues to reproduce eternal ideals and values, however does it according to conditions, requirements and opportunities of modern social reality. Within the framework of his research, the author defines peculiar features of modern forms of social development of religion, such as intensive and purposeful mixture of religion with other fields of activity; mass publication and distribution of products of religion; and growing influence of virtual and network communication which, according to the author, does not eliminate but emphasizes the intersubjective nature of the development of social forms of religion in general. 

Keywords: subjectivity, memetics, manipulation, social influence, transformations of forms of religion, contemporary religious situation, religious consciousness, simulacrum, cyberreligion, virtual religion

Abstract: In his article Faritov carries out a comparative research of Hegel's concept of spirit and Jung's psychology of collective unconscious. Faritov compares the basic conceptual provisions of Hegel's dialectics with the main concepts of Jung's teaching such as collective unconscious, persona, individuation, self and projection. Despite the fact that Jung had a quite negative attitude to Hegel's philosophy, a lot of parallels can be drawn between Jung's psychology and Hegel's philosophy of spirit.  Faritov explains the contradiction between Jung's commitment to Kant's metaphysics and the presence of Hegel's motives in his psychological theory. Faritov uses conventional research methods including the method of comparative analysis. He also applies some methodological provisions of hermeneutical and post-structural approaches to analyzing texts. The result of the research is the conclusion that Jung's psychological theory, on the one hand, is oriented at the priority of facts and exclusion of philosophical speculation from the scope of research. That is why Jung seemed to be so critical about Hegel's theory. On the other hand, it tends to solve particular philosophical issues by the means of scientific discourse which leads to to the implicit presence of Hegel's philosophemes in Jung's teaching. 

Keywords: Hegel, Jung, dialectics, collective unconscious, individuation, self, archetype, discourse, spirit, transgression

Abstract: In his article Stepin analyzes the turn in German critical theory from Walter Benjamin to Dietmar Kamper in the second half of the 20th entury. The total mobilization of the world performed by the means of technical devices leads to the decay of aura in an artwork which means the loss of its history, unique nature and presence. New art initially inclined towards violence and propaganda aestheticizes politics. This process reaches the apogee in Nazi Germany. However, at that very moment culture experiences a fundamental change - the 'iconic' turn caused by the rapidly growing power of visual media. Aestheticization of politics is being replaced with aestheticization of activity and the death of aura is replaced with the 'commited crime'.  The comparative research performed by Stepin is based on the two methodological concepts: hermeneutics with the elements of phenomenology and culture-historical analysis.  Both Walter Benjamin and Dietmar Kamper come to the idea of revolution. They view revolution as a tool to 'stop' the history - the 'shutdown' of history. However, the proletariat Walter Benjamin laid his hopes on cannot get a hold of that trigge because the wall where the trigger is is not the sociality but the Reality. Only a performance artist is able to destroy the dictatorship of visibility and therefore Dietmar Kamper developes the idea of a new 'body revolution'.     

Keywords: Walter Benjamin, Dietmar Kamper, aura, media, revolution, body, shutdown of history, aestheticization of reality, marginality, iconic turn

Abstract: In her article Pilyugina analyzes the grounds and the development of interpretation methods during ancient times. Interpretation started to develop at the earliest stage of ancient philosophy because it was closely connected with cognition and understanding. As a condition for genuine understanding, interpretation can be quite successful because it applies certain methods and techniques. The research objective is to answer the question about sources of interpretatio and development of interpretative methodology. The problem of interpetation is being viewed in terms of the development of humanitarian branches of science and philosophy.  The research is based on the methodology of the historical and philosophical analysis. The author has also applied the hermeneutical method as the main approach to the analysis of interpretation. The nature of the research topic has also required to apply the multidisciplinary approach and involve researches on history of philosophy, hermeneutics, argumentation theory and philology. The author shows that this topic is very important for practical philosophy and development of this topic is caused by social and cultural factors. In its turn, the development of the problem of interpretation created particular branches of knowledge. With time those branches became independent sciences and disciplines. Most of interpretative methods and techniques started to develop in the ancient times and are successfully used today. 

Keywords: cognition, understanding, interpretation, knowledge, method, meaning, language, name, myth, argumentation

Abstract: This article is the continuation of Kudaev's previous work "Nikolay Berdyaev’s Philosophy of Culture in Terms of His Concept of Tragedy" (published in 'Philosophy and Culture' Journal, Issue 1, 2015) in which Kudaev analyzes one of the most important topics in Berdyaev's creative heritage - his philosophy of culture. The novelty of the research is caused by the fact that this subject is viewed in terms of Berdyaev’s concept of tragedy which allows  to understand metaphysical grounds of being and existence including being and existence of culture. This is the subject of the present research article. The article is focused on one of the most paradoxical contradictions of culture: the ontological conflict with life itself, tragic opposition to existence and inevitable transition of culture into civilization. Kudaev shows their internal relationship and tragic antagonism which Berdyaev considered to be inevitable and which could be worded as follows: when society, represented by its prominent representatives, directs the creative energy to create cultural values, it is forced to restrict and even to suppress the will to live, to sacrifice the "thirst for life" to culture. On the contrary, when the society has the "will to live" and the thirst for power and strength, then culture is sacrificed. This antagonism can't be overcome and generates, in its turn, a whole number of contradictions (between goals and means, the meaning of life and the meaning of existence, the creator and his creation) with all the ensuing consequences for the development of culture, civilization and the entire creative fate of human. The research is of integrated nature at the confluence of cultural studies, philosophy, esthetics, religious studies and history which, in its turn, has determined a complex historical-philosophical and philosophical-cultural methodology. The scientific novelty of the article is caused by the fact that the author reconstructs the basic provisions of Berdyaev’s philosophy of culture exclusively from the point of view of Beryaev’s concept of tragedy. 

Keywords: creation versus creator, technology and human, popular culture, means and goals, civilization, tragedy of culture, victim, will to live, culture, bad luck of culture

Abstract: The art of the 20th century remarkably differs from the art life of the previous centuries. In her article Martynova discusses the most significant cultural phenomena that created the image of the century. Undoubtedly, surrealism was the prevailing genre in art in the first half of the 20th century. Firstly, despite its radical nature, surrealism has an extremely rich genealogy. Secondly, surrealists managed to develop a clear art concept. Thirdly, philosophy of post-modernism, the main movement of the second half of the 20th century, was based on the ideology of surrealism.  In her article Martynova has made an attempt to analyze the main art movements of the early 20th century from the point of view of their influence on the development of surrealism. The article is devoted to the genesis of surrealism and provides a detailed description of this cultural phenomenon. There are parts of the article devoted to aesthetics of surrealism, literary and philosophical grounds of surrealism and there is also the part of the article that describes the particular influence of previous art concepts on the development of surrealism. Even though surrealism was a quite original art movement, methodology of surrealism reflected the new interpretation of previous art concepts and therefore was based on findings of these art concepts.  Moreover, surrealist theoretical opinions were based on rather incompatible literary and philosophical sources which created versatility and paradoxes of surrealism. 

Keywords: surrealism, symbolism, constructivism, futurism, expressionism, dadaism, aesthetics, phenomenology, existentialism, psychoanalysis