Abstract: The author of the article raises a question about paradigms being an essential part of modern anthropology. The paradox is that the most recent findings in philosophy of human are found side by side with previous, former concepts of human. For instance, Fedor Girenok’s notes published in the Literaturnaya Gazeta immediately caused a sharp response from scientists, educators and readers. Researchers reproached Fedor Girenok for discussing the nature of consciousness from the idealistic point of view instead of supporting materialistic views. Meanwhile Fedor Girenok shared the most recent discoveries in the sphere of studying brain activity. The author of the present article talks about philosophy and science, their relation and difficult, often dramatic connections. The author of the article tries to understand whether it is acceptable to apply the term «paradigm» to anthropology. In order to answer this question, it is necessary to specify peculiarities of the conclusions made by modern human sciences.

Keywords: philosophy, science, human, knowledge, paradigm, system, death of human, cognition of life, mental adventures, consciousness, brain.

Abstract: The subject matter of this research is objectivity as the main feature of science and scientific value. The author of the article raises a question whether the synthesis of cultural and philosophical researches is possible. The subject of such researches is the science as a cultural phenomenon, in particular, objectivity as the basic scientific value. Such interpretation of objectivity is shared by many experts in the sphere of modern epistemology. The problem is that interpretation of objectivity not only as the scientific criterion but also as the scientific value or even scientific virtue makes objectivity as a possible subject of research of both philosophy of science and cultural studies as well as other associated disciplines. At the same time, such interpretation necessarily connects scientific knowledge with human activity and therefore may even relativize it. The author of the article establishes that cultural research methods can be successfully used in solving relativism problems related to studying scientific values in modern philosophy of science. The author of the article uses the analytical research method which is caused by the need to define the essential differences in definitions of scientific values and determine their status in terms of philosophy of science. It has been established that the modern interpretation of objectivity as a scientific value or virtue creates a threat for relativism in reviewing the grounds for scientific activity. However, this threat can be overcome if the objectivity is related to human activity. In this case objectivity is understood as the efforts made by a scientist in order to overcome his own limits and involves versatile thinking and self-concern. Cultural researches have a particular subject of research and therefore often deal with the problem of relativism. Consequently, results of cultural researches can be successfully used in philosophy of science as well.

Keywords: science, objectivity, philosophy of science, cultural studies, scientific value, scientific virtue, subjectivity, relativism, universalism, versatile thinking.

Abstract: The authors of the article study the process of communication from the point of view of philosophical anthropology. Based on this approach, communication is viewed as an expression of not only social but also existential human nature because this approach allows to determine man’s relations with the world and the Other (and society), God and so on. In this regard the concept of Self and Other acquires a special status, too. In case both the transmitting and receiving parties are active, the inter-subjective communication is created. Inter-subjective communication has special features such as the dialogic interaction, inter-subjectivity, communication as a process of confluence of the message, information and understanding and the presence of individuals. The authors also view the structure of inter-subjective communication based on the concept of basic needs introduced by Abraham Maslow. The authors suggest a six-level structure consisting of the following levels: primitive, traditionally oriented, socially standard, progressively synthesizing, spiritual and spiritually modifying types of communication. Developing mass media and so called «network society» make a significant impact on the structure of the communication process. It brings in the element of «untrue communication» and results in the effect that can be called «archaic style of communication» when the primitive forms of communication such as mass, social, family, domestic, erotic forms of inter-subjective communication become dominating and information is mythologized or acquires a mystic content.

Keywords: communication, need, subject, society, Self and Other, virtuality, anthropology, meta-need, spirituality.

Abstract: Emphasis on theory in Wittgenstein’s philosophy in terms of natural practices (language-games and life forms) places it in close relations with Heidegger’s normative pragmatism. In particular, Heidegger focuses on the term «use», too. However, a French philosopher Jocelyn Benoist disputes that the analogy between Wittgenstein’s and Heidegger’s definitions of «use» has such a close nature. The author of the present article comes back to the question about this analogy and tries to clarify whether theorization of Wittgenstein’s term «use» is actually possible. The research was carried out based on the synthesis of hermeneutic and analytical methods in analyzing Heidegger’s and Wittengstein’s texts from the point of view of modern analytical philosophy and, in particular, analytical pragmatism. The author of the article tries to outline a closer relation between Wittengstein’s and Heidegger’s philosophies within the framework of normative pragmatism and naturalism. The author also offers analytical interpretation of certain Wittengstein’s terms such as rules, use, family resemblance, aspect and others). The author of the article establishes that Wittengstein’s philosophy contains implicit metaphysics that is turned into explicit metaphysics by Heidegger.

Keywords: use, meaning, language-game, Dasein, Wittgenstein, Heidegger, pragmatism, naturalism, aspect, rule.

Abstract: The article is devoted to the ideas of an American pragmatism philosopher, the leader of the Pittsburg school of Neo-Hegelianism Robert Brandom and his unique «analytical» interpretation of Kant and Hegel. The author of the present article provides definitions of the main terms in Brandom’s philosophy such as «discursive obligation», «the game of giving and asking for reasons», «normative statuses», «social selfconsciousness », «inferential connections», de re and de dicto interpretations», «recognition» (Anerkennung). The author of the article shows how following the example of his predecessor and teacher Richard Rorty Robert Brandom «deontologizes’ Hegel and adjust Hegel’s ides to the issues and conceptual grounds of logiclinguistic and pragmatic philosophy during the second half of the XX century. The main research methods include rational reconstruction a comparative analysis of philosophical ideas by Hegel and Brandom through studying Brandom’s works on philosophy and history that were published since 1990–2000. It is the first time in Russian historical and philosophical literature that a researcher fully describes ideas of the philosopher who is very little known in Russia yet made a significant influence on development of neo-pragmatism in the USA, contributed to the «rehabilitation» of Hegel’s ideas and brought together English-American analytical and continental philosophies at the end of the XX — beginning of the XXI centuries.

Keywords: analytical pragmatism, inferentialism, discursive obligation, prepositional content, rational reconstruction, historical reconstruction, interpretation, recognition, linguistic communication, social selfconsciousness.

Abstract: The author of the article presents and describes the rule of the first successful decision. The author establishes that in the course of their development all cultures develop certain practices and patterns that can be explained only by that rule. According to the rule, a society fixates courses of actions that were the first ones to be performed but not the most efficient ones. If the action is successful enough, it is not changed but included in the system of more or less efficient patterns of social interaction.

Keywords: philosophy, culture, law, success, efficiency, limitation, internal logic, society, human, history.

Abstract: The author of the article describes the terms «economics’ and «economism» as opposed conceptions. He describes the relation between economism and mechanical philosophy and analyzes the existence of human and society, the role of economics and the origin of the phenomenon of economism. The article also deals with economics, its purpose and mode of existence. According to the author, the phenomenon of economism is opposed to the term «economics». The author demonstrates the inadequacy of mechanical philosophy and economism in philosophical ontology (dialectics of existence) and dynamics of science (existence of classical, non-classical and post-classical science). He shows that economism estranges human from the social reality just like mechanical philosophy estranges human from the material reality. The main method used by the author of the article is dialectics including the following combination of methods: method of objectivity, method of contradictions between positive and negative dialectics and between the historical and the logical, the method of ascension from abstract to concrete and the comparative method of research. The author of the article analyzes the philosophical grounds of economics and defines the phenomenon of economism as well as describes the influence of economism on economis, society and social spheres. The article contains a comparative analysis of economism and mechanical philosophy and their inadequacy in terms of existence, its development and philosophical picture of the world in general. Mechanical philosophy replaces philosophical ontology with natural science concepts (like in positivism) and economism replaces social ontology with the concepts described in the humanities.

Keywords: society, sphere, development, economism, mechanical philosophy, part, whole, evolution, philosophy, science.

Abstract: The present article is devoted to the historical and cultural peculiarities of genesis of Russian entrepreneurship as well as the main parameters of the dominating model of the relationship between Russian entrepreneurship and the government. Based on the analysis of numerous historical resources, the authors of the article try to cover system characteristics of a specific socio-cultural composition of relations between society, business and government. The central element of Russian institutional structure or «matrix» which was very well described by Vasily Klyuchevsky as the «development of industry at public institutions and ivory tower» is the government’s exceeding the scope of regulation of entrepreneurial activity and regulating access to scarce resources. The process of establishment and evolution of the Russian model of the relationship between business and government can be properly understood based on the integrated cultural and historical approach to analysis of particular «cases». This approach offers a system view of the problem, i. e. genesis of entrepreneurship is included in an extensive institutional and socio-cultural system. In Russia the genesis of patrimonial-political capitalism is associated with the institutional procedure of «giving away» which causes resentment of population towards Western values and ideas of free entrepreneurship. In Russia entrepreneurship acquires new features that do not correspond to any models that are known and relations between society, business and government have a very specific composition. The fact that in Russia there are no conditions for «free competition» other than governmental protectionism or forced or criminal activity has a historical background and at the present time hinders from development of an «independent business man».

Keywords: Russia, government, entrepreneurship, institutional trap, patrimonialism, political capitalism, «giving away», property, culture, society.

Abstract: The analysis of affective experience has a number of particular limitations and one of such limitations is the impossibility to provide a credible description of mental processes under the direct influence by a «strong passion». We should understand that affect is a state of mind when an observer loses his ability to see himself as others would see him. No matter how fast a researcher is, he can observe phenomena that happened «before» or «after» an event but he can never observe what is happening «during» the event. This is why researchers often refer to classical authors and philosophers. Therefore, when we compare ideas described by different observers we should always keep in mind that similarities between their theories are not so obvious and may actually turn out to be an illusion. To some extent, theories about affect deal with the internal but not external side of the process and describe the phenomenology of consciousness when the mind is «frozen» and therefore are similar to theories in literature. Of course, it is simplifying assumption and of course Kant’s and Hume’s ideas have more in common than Byron’s and Goethe’s esthetic metaphors. Nevertheless, contradictions and multiple meanings of similar terms in different philosophies puts in doubt all kinds of generalization. The author of the article makes the following conclusion: since there is a constant threat that the data for research can be unreliable, conclusions should be made based on special rules similar to those that are used in the many-valued logic. Traditional «yes’ and «no» are replaced with «maybe» stressing out a particular change of failure.

Keywords: affect, influence, passion, enlightenment, mind, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, Baruch Spinoza, religion, community.

Abstract: The process of formation of the integrated European community creates a discourse about formation of the European identity that involves discussion of the issue on self-identification of a dynamic and rapidly growing Muslim community in the West and Great Britain in particular. The fiercest debates including debates on the prospects of multiculturalism deal with Muslims performing their religious customs and traditions in Europe. The question about religious and legal self-consciousness of British Muslims has become one of the key topics to be discussed by the governments of many European states. European culture has managed to find place for Muslim dispute resolution agencies as traditional (religious) but not solely legal institutions. European Muslims are in some kind of «legal pluralism» that allows them to retain their religion, culture and values. On one hand, it creates the difference between Muslim and European (mostly secular) identity and, on the other hand, allows European Muslims to coexist in harmony with the European identity.

Keywords: culture, religion, identity, globalization, Islamic Law, European Muslims, Euro Islam, secularism, multiculturalism, self-consciousness.

Abstract: The author of the article analyzes types of school catechisms that were widely spread in Eastern- Slavic writings during the XVII–XVIII centuries. The analysis is carried out in terms of history and based on the methods of comparative analysis. «School catechism» or various religious morals contained in ABC-books and elementary study books are viewed as a collective term that combines texts of different genres. Being influenced by Western models of religious teachings such as Medieval catechetical prayers that appeared in Protestant writings of Spruchbücher genre in the XVI century and Martin Luther’s Small Catechism in 1529, Russian religious morals included in ABC-books and elementary study books published in Moscow and Kiev were an example of a creative combination of different cultural and religious traditions.

Keywords: ABC-book, school catechisms, Theophan Prokopovich, Russia, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, synthesis of traditions, Orthodox religious writings, influence of other confessions, Spruchbücher, XVII– XVIII centuries.

Abstract: The article is devoted to the influence of ancient philosophy on evolution of the early concept of the trinity offered by Augustine of Hippo (354–430). The early version of Augustine’s trinity doctrine which was in many ways influenced by Neo-Platonism metaphysics had two branches: philosophical anagogy that described gradual elation of soul from the sensible world to the world of the infinite Mind and freshless Truth and ontology of the Trinity that view each item created by God as having the three base characteristics (unity, form, order and etc.). The early version of Augustine’s doctrine of the Trinity was created under the influence of Neo-Platonic metaphysic and psychology and Aristotle logics and the theory of knowledge and speech. Later this concept developed into a mature «psychological theory» of the Trinity. According to that theory, the internal life of the Divine Trinity can be understood similarly with the structure of individual consciousness of human soul or «trinity cogito».

Keywords: Ancient philosophy, religion, Christianity, patristic, theology, trinity doctrine, Neo-Platonism, Aristotelianism, metaphysics, psychology.

Abstract: The author of the article analyzes ethnomethodological concept offered by Jean-Jacques Rousseau. The author underlines that the philosopher had a very singular concept of the phenomenology of ethnos. His views on that matter differed from the Eurocentristic concept created during the age of Enlightenment in the XVIII century. Based on ethnographic researchers, Rousseau created a completely different definition of human self-identity. The French philosopher disagreed with Descartes who believed the internal efforts towards improvement of «Self» to be the grounds for the process of self-identity formation. Rousseau assumed that human’s self-concept of himself and an ethnos’ concept of its essence could not exist without other humans or ethnic units. The concept of «Self» is narrowed because by accepting the image of the other person, an individual realizes that his concepts and ideals are limited. It is true for an ethnos, too. Human tries to see himself as a reflection of the other creature or culture. This is why Claude Levi-Strauss used to say that Rousseau was the founder of the humanities. The idea of self-recognition of human himself as well as the other culture described by Rousseau was then developed in terms of Post-Modernism philosophy.

Keywords: philosophy, culture, identity, ethnos, human, ethnography, ethnomethodology, Eurocentrism, difference, rationalism.

Abstract: The article contains the review of the last book written by German authors in the sphere of ethics, Helga E. Hörz and Herbert Hörz. This book presents an attempt to describe the main points and meanings of possible «neo-modernism ethics’ as the theory which could bring back the values and optimistic expectations of Enlightenment and keep in mind Post-Modernism critical remarks. The very first preposition lying in the basis of the new ethics established by the authors is a new look at the roles of selfishness and altruism for moral philosophy. The authors of the book do not consider meta-ethical or solely practical issues. Withdrawing from everyday problems the modern world is «drown» in, Helga and Herbert seek the grounds that would help to solve crisis situations and protect from the threatening anti-humanistic development of civilization. The article contains the review of the book but besides the summary and interpretation the book also contains a number of critical remarks and an attempt to view the book as one whole. The book is in German and isn’t going to be translated in the nearest future. The book was published in 2013 and devoted to topical modern issues based on the consideration and analysis of numerous recent achievements in the sphere of ethics.

Keywords: ethics, morals, selfishness, altruism, Neo-Modernism ethics, crisis, humanity, applied ethics, Post-Modernism, Enlightenment.