The Emergence and Main Trends in the Activities of the Imperial Orthodox Palestine Society in the Sphere of Organizing Pilgrimages (1882-1905)

Bliznyakov Roman Aleksandrovich ORCID: 0000-0002-9863-0267 PhD in History Head of the Scientific Research Laboratory 'Sacred Landscapes of the Byzantine Frontier', Institute of Social Sciences and International Relations; Sevastopol State University 33 Universitetskaya str., Sevastopol, 299053, Russia bliznyakov80@mail.ru Other publications by this author     Pashkovsky Petr Igorevich ORCID: 0000-0001-5403-3797 Doctor of Politics Professor; Department of Political Sciences and International Relations; V.I. Vernadsky Crimean Federal University 295007, Russia, Republic of Crimea, Simferopol, Akademika Vernadskogo ave., 4 petr.pash@yandex.ru Kryzhko Evgeniy Vladimirovich ORCID: 0000-0001-9943-819X PhD in History PhD in History Associate Professor at V.I. Vernadsky Crimean Federal University 295007, Russia, Republic of Crimea, Simferopol, Akademika Vernadskogo ave., 4, room 903 jeyson1030@gmail.com Other publications by this author

Astapov Aleksei Anatol'evich ORCID: 0009-0008-0020-7550 Postgraduate student; Institute of Social Sciences and International Relations; Sevastopol State University 33 Universitetskaya str., Sevastopol, 299053, Russia lex_1986@list.ru

The current increase in interest in Russian discourse in the problems of Orthodox pilgrimage and various aspects of this phenomenon is a derivative of the existential crisis and rethinking of values that began more than three decades ago and intensified in the context of accelerated transformation of the world order due to the aggravation of the geopolitical confrontation between Russia and the West. In this context, the study of the pilgrimage activities of the Imperial Orthodox Palestinian Society (IPPO) in the second half of the XIX – early XX century. – the time of socio-economic and political conflicts, the increase in international tension, the formation of causes and prerequisites for a world–wide war - contributes to the construction of historical analogies, the analysis of which can provide answers to pressing questions of our days.

Founded in 1882, the IPPO solved strategic tasks of a religious, scientific, educational and geopolitical nature, ensuring the strengthening of the position of the Russian Empire in the Middle East (Baldin, 2014: 30). From the moment of its creation until 1905. The society was headed by Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich. This fact gave the researchers reason to call this period the "Sergiev period", defining it as "the most active and creative" in terms of scientific achievements and construction projects (Balakhonova, Okolotin, 2018: 53), as well as the pilgrimage activity that rose to a fundamentally different level.

The following groups of materials served as the source base of the study. Firstly, the "Charter of the Orthodox Palestinian Society" as the main document regulating its activities ^[3]. Secondly, IPPO periodicals are of a reporting and statistical nature ^[4]. Thirdly, analytical works of contemporaries and participants of the events under study ^{[5, 6, 7]}. Fourth, essays, notes and observations of eyewitnesses of the pilgrimage activities of the Society ^{[8, 9, 10]}. Fifth, a collection of systematized documents related to the Russian pilgrimage movement and the work of the IPPO in the late XIX – early XX centuries ^[11].

The specifics of the international political situation in the XIX - early XX century from the perspective of the interests of the Russian Empire, including in Palestine, were considered by a number of researchers ^{[12, 13]}. Various dimensions of the Russian-British geopolitical rivalry during this period, affecting the Middle East region, were highlighted in the works of S.I. Natalevich, T.A. Charusov, N.N. Suitcase, etc. ^{[14, 15]}. The studies of T. Stavrou ^[16] and D. Hopwood ^[17] are devoted to the political, religious and educational aspects of the Russian presence in the Holy Land, taking into account the issues of the IPPO's activities in the region.

The genesis of Christian pilgrimage was analyzed in the works of P. Severn ^[18]. Manifestations of the phenomenon of pilgrimage in Russian history were studied by S.V. Bushueva ^[19], a number of authors considered pilgrimage as a phenomenon in the context of the peculiarities of Russian pilgrimage activity in Palestine in the second half of the XIX – early XX century ^[20].

The Russian spiritual and political presence in the Middle East, as well as the origin of the IPPO and the specifics of its educational, scientific and pilgrimage activities – noting different research accents and levels of fundamental work – were studied by M.A. Balakhonova and V.S. Okolotin ^[2], K.E. Baldin ^[1], K.V. Biryukova ^[21], S.S. Shchevelev ^[22], A.G. Grushev ^[23], S.Y. Zhitenev ^{[24, 25, 26, 27]}, N.N. Lisov ^[28], O.G. Peresypkin ^[29], I.Y. Smirnova and R.B. Butova ^[30], S.V. Stepashin ^[31] and others.

A review analysis of the extensive historiography of the problem indicates that, against the background of a fairly high degree of study of various aspects of the pre-revolutionary history of the IPPO, the issues of the origin of the Society and the main trends of its activities in the field of organizing the Russian pilgrimage to Palestine deserve research attention, which need additional generalization and systematization.

In the first third of the 19th century, under the influence of the Turkish-Egyptian wars, the Middle East became the scene of a clash of interests between the great powers, activating a new round of the Eastern question. The factor of the political and cultural presence of the Western powers in Palestine, which skillfully veiled their geopolitical aspirations with religious arguments, is significantly increasing ^{[24, p. 2]}. "The progressive weakening of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century," the researchers noted, "naturally led to the fact that the problem of Palestine and Holy Sites became more and more relevant in European politics, being, however, a cover for the struggle for dominance in the Middle East" ^{[23, p. 480]}.

Thus, consulates of Great Britain (1839), France (1843), the USA (1844) were opened in Jerusalem and the Anglo-Prussian Bishopric (1841) and the Latin Patriarchate (1847) were established. Such actions, which implied the use of not only methods of diplomacy, but also a religious factor in order to increase its influence in the Middle East region, necessitated a response from the Russian Empire, which historically supports and protects Orthodoxy in the Holy Land. The growing number of pilgrims from Russia also demanded the speedy appearance of a Russian spiritual representation here. As a result, in 1847, the Russian Ecclesiastical Mission (RDM) was founded in Jerusalem ^{[30, pp. 10-11]}.

By the middle of the 19th century, another aggravation of the Eastern issue was taking place, which again shifted the "center of gravity" of the rivalry of the leading powers to the Middle East. The need to obtain complete and reliable information about the situation in the Eastern countries prompted the Russian leadership to intensify the pilgrimage movement of Russian people to Palestine, which became one of the indirect methods of realizing Russia's interests in the Ottoman Empire and contributed to the formation of a number of Russian state and church institutions here ^{[19, p. 128]}. The consequences of strengthening Russian positions in the region were characterized by the fact that "the UK was unhappy with the growing rivalry in the Middle East and Greece. Queen Victoria, who ruled England from 1837 to 1901, was a staunch opponent of Russia" ^{[12, p. 397]}.

In order to compensate for the unfavorable results of the Crimean War for the Russian Empire, the idea of forming a sphere of Russian interests in the Holy Land is put forward ^{[28, p. 109]}, which should have been facilitated by the intensification of pilgrimage to the Eastern Mediterranean. Russian Russian Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich is considered to be the initiator of the active Russian presence in the East, surrounded by whom a large-scale project is being developed to create a Russian infrastructure in Palestine, contributing to the development of Russian pilgrimage and Orthodoxy in general. For this purpose, in 1856 the Russian Society of Shipping and Trade (ROPiT) was created, which was engaged in the transportation of pilgrims. 1857 marks the resumption of the activities of the RDM in Jerusalem, evacuated during the Eastern War (1853-1856), and in 1858 the Russian diplomatic consulates were opened here for the first time ^{[24, pp. 2-3]}. The following year, the Palestine Committee was established in the imperial capital of Russia, which was transformed in 1864 into the Palestine Commission under the Asian Department of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia. The tasks of this institution also included issues of pilgrimage activities ^{[23, p. 482]}.

In the last third of the XIX century. Russia, being a world power, had interests in various parts of the globe, including in the Middle East region. At the same time, a kind of "dogma" of the Russian government's course "for a long time became the maintenance of the status quo in the Middle East and the preservation of "weak Turkey" as a "watchman" at the Straits" ^{[13, p. 338]}.

The efforts of St. Petersburg in the Holy Land during this period were in the nature of state initiatives. This was confirmed by the fact that Emperor Alexander II, when establishing the Palestinian Committee, designated his brother, Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich, as its head, stressing: "This is a matter of the heart for me." The researchers emphasized that "for the Russian emperors, all actions in the Middle East, where the ancient Orthodox churches were located (in Palestine and Jerusalem), were determined not only by state interests, but also by personal spiritual aspirations arising from traditional religious education and a firm belief in the importance of Eastern Orthodox civilization" ^{[29, pp. 117-118]}.

V.N. Khitrovo, who worked for a long time in the Ministry of Finance, was the organizer who determined the IPPO's activity program ^{[23, p. 482]}. He attracted influential people of that time to the "Palestinian cause", including the chief prosecutor of the Holy Synod, K.P. Pobedonostsev, Count E.V. Putyatin, D.S. Arsenyev, the august Konstantin Nikolaevich and Nikolai Nikolaevich ^{[31, pp. 12-13]}. Of great importance in the process of forming the Society was the factor of activation of the Russian pilgrimage to the Holy Land, as well as the visit to the region in 1881 by Grand Dukes Sergei Alexandrovich and Pavel Alexandrovich with their cousin Konstantin Konstantinovich ^{[21, p. 12]}.

There are the august personages and the head of the RDM — Archimandrite Antonin (Kapustin)— they communicate confidentially. The efforts of enthusiasts under the leadership of S.V.N. Khitrovo and the genuine interest of Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich led to the emergence in 1882. The Orthodox Palestinian Society (Zhitenev, 2021a: 11). Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich becomes its first chairman. May 8, 1882 The Charter and motto of the Society were approved by Emperor Alexander III, and on May 21 of the same year its official opening took place. V.N. Khitrovo, who personally prepared the Charter of the Society, was elected its honorary member, assistant chairman and member of the Council. In 1889, by the supreme decree, the Palestine Commission under the Asian Department of the Russian Foreign Ministry was liquidated. Its functions, property and capital are transferred to the Society together with the assignment of the honorary title "Imperial" to it. At the same time, V.N. Khitrovo was elected secretary of the IPPO ^{[27, pp. 113-114]}.

In the context of characterizing the subsequent activities of the Society, it is important to note that from a legal point of view it was a private, non-governmental organization ^{[5, p. 121]}. However, it was presided over by representatives of the imperial family. It received a significant state subsidy, in fact, being part of the Russian state bureaucracy. The financial condition of the IPPO consisted of annual membership receipts, as well as an imperial subsidy in the amount of 130,000 rubles in gold. There were also special donations from individuals or organizations, among which the most important source of income was the circle collection, which was carried out annually in the Orthodox churches of the Russian Empire a week before Easter – on Palm Sunday. Another source of income was income from pilgrims: proceeds from sales of "pilgrimage books" and amounts coming from Russian farms in the Middle East. A modest place in the Company's income was occupied by interest from bank deposits and funds earned from the sale of books and publications of the IPPO ^{[23, pp. 484-485]}. Russian Russian Orthodox Church bishops, nobles, industrialists, merchants and ordinary people donated large sums, to the best of their abilities, to the development of Society and Russian Palestine ^{[25, p. 12]}. It cannot be ignored that the emperor, grand dukes and members of their families, bishops of the Russian Orthodox Church, nobles, industrialists, merchants and ordinary people.

According to the Charter, the IPPO was supposed to solve three main tasks: organizing and arranging Russian pilgrimage in the Holy Land; providing assistance and support to Orthodoxy in the region through charity and educational work; scientific and publishing activities (research on the history and current situation of the Middle East, which meant conducting expeditions and archaeological excavations in Palestine, as well as promoting knowledge about the Holy Land in the Russian Empire) ^[3].

The organization of pilgrimage activities in the structure of the Society, in addition to the management staff, was carried out by the specialized Department of the manual for Orthodox pilgrims. In many large Russian cities, authorized, and later provincial departments of the IOPS functioned, distributing information about pilgrimage trips under the auspices of the Society and pilgrimage books to the population. For the owners of such books, a preferential fare was assumed by Russian railways and sea routes to the place of pilgrimage. Discounts also extended to new routes being developed. In 1892, thanks to the IPPO, the railway connection between Jaffa and Jerusalem was opened, greatly facilitating movement for pilgrims ^{[10, 6]}.

One of the first steps of the Society aimed at facilitating travel to Palestine was the achievement of agreements on preferential tariffs for pilgrims with the management of Russian Railways and ROPiT, which provided transport links between Odessa and Jaffa. These tariffs were valid both on the territory of the Russian Empire and on the sea route to Palestine ^[7].

In 1883, at the initiative of the IPPO, a competition was organized to compile the best guide to the Holy Land, which was subsequently written by V. Ya. Mikhailovsky ^{[5, p. 313]}. Subsequently, new brochures and books published by the Society contained very useful information for religious travel ^{[9, 7]}. In the same year, fulfilling the instructions of the IPPO, the scientist, traveler and doctor A. V. Eliseev went to Palestine to compile a report on the life of Russian pilgrims there, which was later published in the form of a book ^[8]. Under the influence of his report, the Society decides to build hotels for pilgrims from Russia in the Holy Land, for which land is acquired in the region and proper infrastructure is created ^{[11, pp. 691-719]}.

October 1888 was marked by the visit of Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich and his wife to Jerusalem. One of the events within the framework of their trip was the consecration of the Church of St. Mary Magdalene, built on the personal instructions and at the expense of Emperor Alexander III. On the initiative of Sergei Alexandrovich, land plots are being actively bought up in Palestine, hospitals, schools and hotels are being built. Large tracts of land in west Jerusalem were allocated for the construction of farmsteads, a large hospital, the RDM building and the Trinity Cathedral ^{[29, p. 119]}. In addition to the functions and capitals of the Palestine Commission transferred to the IPPO in 1889 by the decree of the emperor, the Society received the Elizabethan and Mariinsky farmsteads, as well as the Russian Hospital in Jerusalem. For the needs of pilgrims, the Palestinian Society erected new farmsteads in the Holy City (Sergievskoye, Alexandrovskoye and Nikolaevskoye) and Nazareth (Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich's farmstead). As a gift from Hieromonk Veniamin, IPPO received another courtyard, named in his honor – Veniaminovsky ^{[26, p. 72]}.

It is known that at the end of the 19th century, the Society's courtyards in Jerusalem were able to accommodate about 2,000 people, and during the Passover period – up to 10,000. The farmsteads had a laundry, a warehouse, a bakery, drinking water tanks, a dining room, a bathhouse and a boiler room ^{[23, pp. 486-487]}. Traditionally, such a compound had "three categories" of conditions for receiving different pilgrims (depending on the level of wealth and social status), differing in the quality of apartments, service and cost. At the same time, at the beginning of the XX century. functionally similar IPPO farmsteads existed in Nazareth and Haifa ^{[7, p. 255]}.

The low level of public utilities in Palestine at the turn of the century made Society face the need to have several hospitals in Jerusalem (and near it – in Beit Jala), Bethlehem and Nazareth, which were serviced by Russian staff. In addition, a Russian hospital, founded in 1862-1863, operated in the Holy City, which had the ability to accommodate up to 40 people. The treatment process and the medicines themselves in the hospital and hospitals were free of charge ^{[23, p. 487]}.

The original certificates – pilgrimage books – were valid for a year from the moment of their issuance, granting the right to stop at railway junctions for which coupons were available. Pilgrims used them to buy train tickets from the capitals and major cities of Russia to Odessa, Sevastopol, Novorossiysk, Batum and Taganrog, where tickets for steamboats to Constantinople, Athos, Alexandria and Jaffa were purchased again using coupons. As already noted, the use of steamships became possible after the conclusion of agreements between the IPPO and ROPiT, specializing in maritime transportation. Having set foot on the ground in Jaffa, the pilgrims traveled centrally by rail to Jerusalem, where they were safely housed in the courtyards of the Society, which cost them less than other places of stay. Pilgrimage books made it possible to stay in Middle Eastern settlements on the farmsteads of the IPPO: in Jerusalem (at Sergievsky, Nikolaevsky, Veniaminovsky, Mariinsky, Elizabethan and Alexandrovsky); in Nazareth – at the courtyard named after Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich; in Haifa – at the courtyard named after V.A. Speransky. Pilgrims were provided with food there, grocery stores with affordable prices functioned, there were baths and laundries ^{[26, pp. 74-75]}.

The traditional route has developed. So, at the beginning of the route, Russian pilgrims visited the RDM, the ancient Patriarchate of Jerusalem, the great shrine — the Church of the Resurrection of Christ. After that, the travelers got acquainted with the places of the earthly life of the Savior and the Virgin, localized within the old Jerusalem. In Lent before Easter, representatives of the Society carried out caravan trips to the Holy Places of Palestine with experienced guides. Such groups included from 6 to 94 (sometimes more) pilgrims. At the request of the managers of the farmsteads, a doctor and a nurse, as well as experienced Montenegrin guides, were often on such difficult and long journeys with the pilgrims. Traditionally, pilgrimage caravans visited the Jordan River, Hebron (the Oak of Mamre), Nazareth, Bethlehem and Galilee. The IPPO organized long-distance hikes to Mount Sinai and the monastery of St. Catherine the Great Martyr. It happened that pilgrims traveled to places associated with the life of the Holy Family in Cairo. The pilgrims' way from Palestine to Russia, as a rule, passed by sea through Constantinople to Odessa or other Russian Black Sea ports. Free meals were provided for them on the steamships, with the assistance of the Society and ROPiT. The route of pilgrims leaving for the Holy Land or returning necessarily ran through Constantinople or Mount Athos, where they worshipped shrines ^{[10, pp. 4-18; 6]}.

Daily readings of religious literature were held in the courtyards of the IPPO and icons were distributed at a reasonable cost. But the "ideological preparation" of pilgrimage trips began to be carried out by the diocesan branches of the Society on the Russian territory, manifested in lectures containing religious information and attitudes regarding its tasks and activities, sometimes accompanied by a demonstration of photographs. Such readings often aroused great interest, as evidenced by the high attendance ^[4].

The number of pilgrims who came varied depending on the period. Thus, in 1883-1884 there were 2,145 such people, in 1887-1888 – 2,588, in 1891-1892 – 350, in 1894-1895 – 4,164, in 1898-1899 - 6,128. Among the pilgrims there were nobles, clergymen and merchants, but, as a rule, representatives of peasants, burghers and retired soldiers prevailed ^{[23, pp. 488-489]}. The peak of the age chart was for people aged 50 – 60 years. The second place on the podium in the number category was occupied by the age group of pilgrims of the category in the range of 60-70 years. Women predominated in all age groups ^{[7; 28, pp. 346-358]}. Due to the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese war in 1904, the number of Russian pilgrims visiting Palestine decreased significantly ^{[26, p. 76]}.

The beginning of the 20th century led to a change in the actors in the forefront of the IPPO. Thus, in 1903, the initiator of the institution, the ideologist and one of the main organizers of the Society's activities, V.N. Khitrovo, died. In February 1905, a monstrous terrorist act ended the life of the First Chairman of the IPPO, Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich. The second chairman of the organization is the Dowager Grand Duchess Elizabeth Feodorovna. A new stage in the history of the Society's pilgrimage activity begins ^{[2, pp. 53-54]}, which was marked by the stormy and tragic events of the wars and revolutions of the early XX century.

In the context of the actualization of the Eastern issue by the middle of the 19th century, the international political significance of the problem of Holy Sites in Palestine was increasing, largely as a result of the need to argue for the genuine geopolitical interests of the leading states competing in the Middle East. The strengthening of Western influence in the territories of the weakening Ottoman Empire, which was the result of the skillful use of the religious factor for political purposes, prompted Russia – as a world power, historically acting as a defender of Orthodoxy in the Holy Land and having its own interests in the region – to retaliate. The negative consequences of the Crimean War for the Russian Empire intensified such aspirations, leading to the promotion at the state level of the idea of forming a sphere of Russian presence in Palestine. As a result, Russia's diplomatic and spiritual influence in the Holy Land is increasing, which has manifested itself in the functioning of a number of relevant representative offices and organizations of a state, public and ecclesiastical nature here, the creation of infrastructure and the activation of the Orthodox pilgrimage movement.

The need to systematize efforts to strengthen and protect Russian positions in the Middle East region, taking into account the fruitful work of domestic enthusiasts in this direction, finds a response at the highest state level. The consequence of this is the foundation of the IPPO, a public organization that had a special status, state and church support and became the main organizer of the humanitarian presence of the Russian Empire in the Holy Land. In the "Sergievsky" period (1882-1905), along with charity, education, scientific and publishing activities aimed at maintaining and developing Orthodoxy in the region, one of the main tasks of the Society was the organization of a Russian pilgrimage to Palestine.

This manifested itself in the following actions: 1) dissemination of information about pilgrimage trips among the Russian population; 2) reduction of tariffs for travel by rail and sea within the framework of pilgrimage trips; 3) establishment of railway and sea transport links between Russia and the Holy Land; 4) publication of guidebooks, brochures and books containing information useful for pilgrims; 5) acquisition of new land land plots in the region; 6) repair of existing and construction of new infrastructure, including religious buildings (farmsteads, hospitals, temples, etc.) necessary for the reception, life, treatment and spiritual needs of visitors, as well as pilgrimage events in Palestine; 7) systematization of pilgrimage routes and organization of special trips (caravans) with guides to Holy Places; 8) conducting educational events for pilgrims in order to familiarize themselves with valuable religious information and the main tasks of the IPPO.