The evolution of theChinese painting genre "Zhen-wu" in the XXth century

Syui Jiangpeng Postgraduate student; Institute of History; St. Petersburg State University 199034, Russia, Saint Petersburg, 5 Vasilyevsky Island str., 2, sq. 7 787874159@qq.com

The genre of ren-wu painting, which translates as "painting figures" or "painting people", is one of the oldest and most unique areas of Chinese art. The main focus in this genre is on the depiction of people — both historical and mythological characters. Ren-wu originated more than a thousand years ago and has undergone many changes, absorbing not only the cultural and philosophical traditions of China, but also reflecting the turns of Chinese history and society.

The relevance of the study "The evolution of the genre of Chinese ren-wu painting in China in the 20th century" is due to the importance of this genre for understanding the cultural and artistic changes that took place in Chinese society during the era of large-scale social and political transformations. Ren-wu is the oldest genre of Chinese figurative painting. However, in the 20th century, this genre underwent significant changes under the influence of reforms and cultural movements such as the Fourth of May movement, the Cultural Revolution and the policy of reform and openness.

Firstly, the study of the evolution of ren-wu allows us to better understand how traditional art forms adapted to new ideological conditions and tasks, when the themes of national unity, patriotism and socialist values came to the fore. Secondly, this research helps to reveal how artists used the genre to reflect changes in society, combining traditional techniques with elements of Western realistic painting. Thirdly, the relevance of the study is enhanced by the fact that ren-wu not only reflects the artistic trends of the 20th century, but also demonstrates the evolution of Chinese cultural identity, transformed under the influence of globalization and interaction with the West. Studying this genre allows you to explore the unique path of Chinese culture, which combines deep respect for the past and a willingness to change. Thus, the study of the evolution of ren-wu in the 20th century is important for art criticism, cultural studies and historical research.

This work offers a systematization of the development of the genre of ren-wu in the twentieth century, showing the dependence of changes on both external and internal influences. For the first time, the study covers all stages of the development of ren-wu painting in the twentieth century. The work identifies the main directions of the evolution of the genre both visually and in terms of content. She examines the work of artists of different generations, studying the continuity and innovations in this genre.

Ren-wu refers to traditional Chinese Guohua painting (traditional Chinese painting done in ink and mineral paints, characterized by the use of calligraphic lines and an emphasis on conveying the atmosphere and spiritual essence of the image) and is executed in the styles of sei-yi (写意, a painting direction in which the artist seeks to convey the essence and spirit of the object, not its detailed and precise features and uses free, expressive brushstrokes) Gong-bi (工笔, a style of Chinese painting characterized by a detailed and accurate technique, where the emphasis is on precision and realism, involves the creation of thin, clear lines and carefully drawn details). The main materials for painting ren-wu are ink and mineral pigments applied to silk or rice paper. Brushes of different thicknesses and shapes allow artists to achieve fine lines and expressive strokes, which is especially important for creating portraits and conveying small details. The main focus is on fine contour work. The artists carefully draw the lines framing the figures and their clothes, giving volume and shape to the image. The lines should be both expressive and light, which allows you to preserve the lightness of the image and emphasize the main features of the figure. Classical ren-wu rarely uses the linear perspective common in Western art ^[1]. Instead, the traditional Chinese technique of "free perspective" is used, which allows you to create a sense of depth by superimposing and placing objects at different heights.

Classical figurative painting in China often includes symbolic elements of cultural and philosophical significance. Unlike dynamic Western portraits, classical ren-wu painting strives to depict tranquility and stability. The poses and gestures of the characters are often static, and the figures are arranged in such a way that the viewer can focus on the details and symbolism. The traditional genre of ren-wu does not imply an accurate anatomical transfer of the human figure, as is customary in Western painting. Instead, artists strive to create an image that reflects idealized features and focuses on moral significance and spiritual qualities.

The roots of Ren-wu painting go back to ancient times. Already during the Han and Tang dynasties, artists actively depicted people, although these images were more decorative and symbolic in nature than artistically realistic. Images of people and deities were often also of a sacred nature. The initial works of this period were simple and symbolic.

Figurative painting reached its heyday in the Song and Tang dynasties, when, after a long period of fragmentation, the capital of China became a center attracting outstanding artists. In the Northern Song (960-1127), the first theoretical works aimed at defining the boundaries of the portrait genre were created, and specific terms appeared ^{[2, p. 259]}. The portrait art of that time was called "zhen-xiang" ("true appearance") and was very popular both among the general public and at court. Court figurative painting performed several tasks: didactic, documentary, ritual and diplomatic. As part of the didactic function, portraits of outstanding personalities, both contemporaries and figures of the past, were created, which is associated with the influence of Confucian values ^[3]. The documentary function was to create lifetime portraits of the emperors. Such images, especially during the reign of Emperor Tai Tsong, in which the court portrait painter monk Yuan Ai became famous, could be both official for public display and unofficial, intended personally for the emperor ^[4]. The ritual portraits included images of deceased emperors, which had a cult significance within the traditions of ancestor veneration. The political and diplomatic function was to depict opponents of the emperor, rulers of neighboring countries and other political figures.

However, over time, Chinese painting gradually began to abandon images of people in favor of landscape and subject painting. Increasingly, the ren-wu genre was viewed as a low "folk" genre, since images of people, with the exception of nobles, scientists and representatives of the imperial dynasty (whose images, in turn, were purely functional), were not a popular subject for depiction. According to the great artists of the Qin period, man was too insignificant and insignificant in the context of history to depict him in paintings. Also, this type of painting was treated with disdain, considering it too simple and utilitarian, far from the concept of "true creativity".

Despite this break in the development of the genre, which led to its crisis by the beginning of the twentieth century, it is important to remember that figurative painting is the oldest form of Chinese art reflecting the history and traditions of the country. Therefore, in order to understand figurative painting of the 20th century, it is necessary to consider it in the context of the entire history of Chinese culture and civilization.

The revival of ren-wu painting in the twentieth century is closely linked to the profound social and cultural changes that took place in Chinese society in the twentieth century. Intensive reforms and the renewal movement that began at the beginning of the century spurred interest in traditional genres that could express the country's new national identity and cultural heritage. In the context of the transformation of the political system and the search for a new national identity, ren-wu painting has received a second wind, becoming a means of expressing not only historical images, but also the actual realities of Chinese life. The artists turned to ren-wu as a form that allowed combining traditional Chinese art with new, modern themes and Western techniques, thus reflecting the unique path of development of Chinese society in the 20th century. The general democratization of society's life was reflected in the democratization of painting, including such traditional genres as ren-wu. The portrait genre ceased to be purely functional, on the contrary, artists began to experiment and use it to display various ideas and philosophies.

In general, therefore, we can talk about deep transformations associated with the genre of ren-wu in the twentieth century. In this study, the periodization of the development of painting in the twentieth century will include three stages: from the beginning of the twentieth century to the formation of the PRC in 1949 (1), from the formation of the PRC to the announcement of the "Policy of Reform and Openness" (2) and from the beginning of the "Policy of Reform and Openness" to the end of the twentieth century (3). At these stages, the evolution of the ren-wu genre will be traced against the background of internal changes and external influence.

The beginning of the 20th century is known as the period of "100 schools", in which Chinese society experienced a departure from established traditions to various genre experiments ^[5]. The diversity in painting reflected the diversity of views and aspirations in society. Chinese society was experiencing a deep crisis: political instability after the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty, social inequality, foreign influence and economic poverty intensified the desire for reform. The intelligentsia and new political forces, such as nationalists and Communists, promoted the ideas of modernization, which eventually led to fundamental changes in the country and the establishment of the Republic of China.

There was a deep crisis in both society and art, and young artists who had the opportunity to study abroad for the first time sought a revolution in traditional Chinese art. Although traditional genres continued to exist, they were already perceived as outdated and not meeting the requirements of the time. Artists who studied abroad, in Europe or in Japan participated in the formation of a new artistic direction ^[6]. Chinese artists trained in Europe witnessed profound changes in Western art, where realism gave way to new modernist trends. This led to the fact that the works of Chinese masters began to combine elements of realism with features of such trends as Impressionism and expressionism.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, two opposing reformation schools of ren-wu painting were formed: modernist and realistic. In general, this division can be explained not only by the variety of styles that Chinese artists first encountered abroad, but also by the dichotomy of styles xie-yi (expressive style) and gong-bi (realistic style) inherent in traditional Chinese art. Two artists can be distinguished as representatives of two opposing schools of painting in relation to ren-wu: Lin Fengmian and Xu Beihong. Both artists came from creative families and received fundamental education in the field of gohua in childhood in China – and both then studied in France, but they learned completely different aspects from Western painting.

Although Lin Fengmian mainly studied realism at the university, his attention was attracted by the art revolution that was developing at that time in France. He was attracted by such trends as post-Impressionism, Fauvism and primitivism, the most prominent figures of which were A. Matisse and A. Modigliani, as well as Cubism by P. Picasso ^{[7, C.35]}. He was also influenced by the German expressionists E. Heckel and E. Nolde.

In his works, he is a great innovator, combining the traditional Chinese style inspired by the ceramics of the Song Dynasty and primitive rock paintings and the Western school of painting. Lin Fengmian used a square canvas format instead of a long scroll, an unusual perspective for Guohua, bright colors and wide impressionistic brushstrokes in his works. At the same time, the images of people in his works were far from both the Chinese tradition of painting and Western realism. For example, in the painting "Goodbye, my Concubine", with the help of elements characteristic of cubism, he conveys a scene from a Chinese opera, where the traditional Gohua technique is combined with geometric shapes (ovals, triangles, polygons). In a series of paintings on the theme of this opera, human figures are depicted using simple shapes reminiscent of the work of Cubists such as Picasso. In his later works, he continued to synthesize Western and Chinese approaches, although he somewhat moved away from Cubism to post-Impressionism and expressionism. For example, "The Lady in Blue" combines the traditions of the shi-nu genre (the traditional Gohua subgenre depicting beautiful women) and the Modigliani style ^{[8, p.219]}. It is worth noting that, being an innovator in the style of images, Lin Fengmian adhered to a fairly traditional approach when it came to the subjects of images: most of his works in the ren-wu genre depicted either beautiful women (shi-nu genre), or paintings based on mythological and literary subjects. Unlike his Western-style oil paintings, which very obviously reflected the artist's concern for the fate of his Homeland against the background of difficult historical events, his paintings in the Guohua style remained apolitical. However, they did not serve specific functions, as was the case with ren-wu earlier: for Lin Fengmian, it was art for art's sake and reflection on the fate of Chinese culture – something that used to be characteristic of other genres of guohua, but not ren-wu.

Lin Fengmian's antipode was Xu Beihong. Xu Beihong, despite his initial upbringing in the traditional Guohua school of Chinese painting, critically assessed its current state. Already in 1918, before his trip to Europe, he presented a report "Methods of reforming Chinese painting", where he expressed the opinion that Chinese painting had reached a crisis point and needed to be updated. He called for preserving valuable traditional methods, reforming outdated techniques and incorporating into Chinese painting those approaches of Western art that would organically fit into it. Throughout his career, Xu believed that only realistic techniques of Western painting could revive the Chinese tradition. He also supported a return to figurative painting (ren-wu), which, in his opinion, should reflect real human activity and the life of society.

In his approach to figurative painting, he adhered to the criterion of deep realism, treating with contempt the latest trends in European painting. In his work (especially in oil painting, but also in gohua), Poe relied on French romanticism and realism ^[9]. The European school of historicism also left a deep imprint on his works. Verified anatomical accuracy, detailed depiction of facial expressions and emotions of the characters in the paintings, strict adherence to the laws of perspective – all this strikingly distinguished his paintings in the ren-wu genre from both traditional Chinese painting and the works of Lin Fengmian and supporters of his school.

Despite the influence of Western painting, Xu Beihong remained committed to Chinese cultural traditions, paying attention to symbolism and philosophical themes. In such works as "A Stupid Old Man Moves Mountains", he used mythological plots to express topical social and political ideas, such as the resilience of the Chinese people in the face of Japanese aggression ^[10]. In this work, created using traditional Chinese ink and watercolor techniques, he combined realistic Western forms with Chinese stylization, creating a unique style in which elements of both cultural approaches are intertwined.

Thus, by the middle of the twentieth century, Chinese painting in the ren-wu genre was divided into two schools – a school that adhered to realism and anatomical accuracy in depicting human figures, and a school that used more stylized and abstract figures. However, these two schools had a common quality – the desire to reform traditional Chinese ren-wu painting, to breathe life into it by integrating the national tradition with Western schools. It was in the integration of the two styles that the artists saw the future of Chinese Guohua painting, and especially the ren-wu genre.

With the coming to power of the Communist Party (CPC), there was a reassessment of values in culture, including in painting. The style of socialist realism comes to the fore, which was mainly expressed in the form of oil paintings in the Western style (which, in turn, largely relied on the Soviet school of socialist realism). However, Ren-wu's painting was not forgotten, moreover, she went through her next transformation.

In 1942, the Communist revolutionary Mao Zedong boldly declared that "there is no such thing as art for art's sake, art that stands above classes, art that is separate from politics or independent of it" ^[11]. So painting in the genre of ren-wu stood at the service of the young country and its regime. Art, including painting, began to serve as party propaganda, and artists were instructed to glorify the heroes of the revolution, workers and peasants, to depict socialist labor and the achievements of the new society. The main task of painting was to create a positive image of socialist China and strengthen party values.

During this period, the work of modernist artists like Lin Fengmian was deeply criticized and banned. The figurative painting of Guohua in the style of modernism was in disgrace and practically ceased to develop on the territory of the People's Republic of China. However, there was no total rejection of Guohua painting. Instead, a realistic trend in traditional Chinese ren-wu painting began to develop.

The iconic figure here is Fang Zengxian. He, together with another artist Zhou Changu, developed the Zhejiang Guohua School of Painting (the Zhe School or the New Zhejiang School ^[12]), which had a significant influence on modern ren-wu painting ^[13].

The artist managed to fulfill the historical mission of reviving the new Chinese figurative painting. He contributed to the creation of a systematic and effective educational mechanism of the Zhe Ren-wu school. In his painting, the artist paid an important role to the realism and anatomical accuracy of images of human figures. The basis of Chinese figure painting by Fang Zengxian is a linear sketch of the exact structure of the human body ^[14]. The method was formed from the French method of five-part chiaroscuro, the method of P.P. Chistyakov ^[15] and the American structuralist J. Berriman, as well as the linear structure method of the Chinese artist and art historian, Pan Tianshou. Anatomical precision, chiaroscuro, dynamic composition – all these innovations in the classic ren-wu drawing were the result of the interpretation of the Western realistic school of painting. In his works, he "successfully combined the Western constructive construction of the human figure with the expressiveness of the genre "ren-wu" ^[16].

Another important change, characteristic only for this particular period, can be considered a change in the subjects of the paintings. When the Communists came to power in China, the most important component of art became its social orientation. Ren-wu's painting began to be actively used to promote socialist ideas and ideals. New themes have appeared in the genre aimed at glorifying workers, peasants, soldiers and heroes of the revolution ^[17]. The images of traditional sages, poets and philosophers have given way to modern heroes — participants in the revolution, workers and the military. Instead of mythological and historical subjects, ren-wu artists began to depict scenes from the daily life of socialist China. An important place was occupied by portraits of Mao Zedong, party members and statesmen, who became symbols of the new China. Images of workers and collective farmers symbolizing the ideas of collectivism and socialist construction have also become popular. For example, Fan Zengxian's most famous painting "Painstaking effort is put into every grain" shows the viewer a peasant man who is engaged in hard physical labor. His clothes are simple, typical of rural areas: rolled-up sleeves and a headband indicate his occupation ^[18]. The man is bent down to the ground and is probably collecting or studying an ear of wheat, symbolizing hard agricultural labor. The painting conveys respect for the work of the farmer and emphasizes the importance of each grain — a symbol of hard work. The style of execution resembles traditional Chinese painting, with an emphasis on minimalistic lines and a natural pose of the character, but executed with realism and attention to detail characteristic of socialist realism. In addition, she is full of dynamism and drama, creating the image of new heroes of a young country.

Even closer to socialist realism, both in ideological content and composition, is the painting by the same artist "Reading the Red Book", where a multi-figure complex composition conveys the involvement of broad segments of the population of different ages, genders and origins in the politics of the new state. This picture is also characterized by dynamism and psychologism, as well as ideological content aimed at protecting the interests of the PRC and the CPC.

Thus, it can be noted that the changes introduced by the Communists who came to power transformed ren-wu into a more politicized and realistic genre aimed at a mass audience and propaganda purposes. Despite a significant deviation from traditional canons, many ren-wu artists managed to preserve elements of Chinese aesthetics, continuing to develop this genre in the face of new ideological demands. It should be noted that during the designated period, ren-wu painting was quite monotonous, approaches that differed from socialist realism or classical Guohua painting were rejected and eradicated.

However, after the implementation of Deng Xiaoping's "Reform and Openness" policy, the variety of styles and forms returned to the direction of ren-wu. Chinese painting has undergone noticeable changes, regaining more creative freedom and opening up to the influences of international art. The artists gained more freedom in choosing themes and style, which allowed them to move away from the strict ideological orientation characteristic of the period of the Cultural Revolution. Personal and everyday themes appeared in painting, as well as studies of individuality and inner experiences. The opening of China to the world allowed Chinese artists to get acquainted with Western styles such as abstractionism, expressionism and pop art, which led to experiments and an expansion of the palette of expressive means. Artists began to combine traditional Chinese techniques with Western elements, creating hybrid styles. New styles are emerging and developing, combining the latest experience of the past decades, the ancient history of classical ren-wu painting and various Western trends.

He Jiaying is a contemporary Chinese artist, a recognized master of the ren—wu genre, specializing in figurative painting that combines traditional Chinese techniques with elements of realism. His work combines the classical traditions of Chinese Guohua painting with modern artistic approaches, which makes his works unique and recognizable. He Jiaying masterfully combines traditional ink and watercolor techniques with a realistic manner of depicting the human figure. On his canvases, one can see the thin, elegant lines typical of Chinese painting, and at the same time, the precise anatomical reproduction and attention to detail inherent in Western realism ^[19]. He Jiaying also uses subtle color accents, giving volume and depth to the images, which sets his style apart from other masters of Chinese painting. He works in the gunbi technique, which assumes a high degree of detail, neat contours and layering. The artist pays great attention to the depiction of human faces and emotions. His figures express inner states and deep feelings, which brings them closer to European psychological painting.

At the same time, unlike painting in the middle of the twentieth century, his paintings lack an ideological component. At the center of his work are images of women, often in national costumes and traditional outfits. The artist depicts women not only as a symbol of beauty, but also as the embodiment of Chinese traditions and culture, continuing the traditions of the Shi nu genre. However, in addition to the traditional images of young beauties, the artist often depicts ordinary people, for example, middle-aged women. In an effort to depict life realistically, without the exaggerated elegance of classical ren-wu painting or the ideological heroism of painting in the mid-twentieth century, artists of the late twentieth century, including He Jiaying, reflect on the theme of the life of the "little man", a new leitmotif of Chinese art. This can be seen in such paintings as "Auntie Mizhi" and "Director of the Street".

Also, with the beginning of the policy of reforms and openness, regional painting began to develop, reflecting the life of small nations. Here, the ren-wu genre also has its own special characteristics. An example is the paintings of Shi Golyan (史国)), an artist famous for his works in the genre of figurative painting and a unique style combining the traditions of Chinese Guohua painting with elements of Western realism. Shi Goliang actively synthesizes Western realism with traditional Chinese methods, which gives his paintings a characteristic complexity and expressiveness. His works show a deep interest in realism and detailed depiction of figures, which makes his style similar to European realists. At the same time, he uses fine lines that are characteristic of Chinese painting. His paintings are often saturated with bright colors and carefully drawn details, which differs from the typical Chinese Guohua, in which the emphasis is more on minimalism and simplicity ^[20].

The main theme of his work is the daily life of Tibetans and their culture. He depicts scenes from the life of the Tibetan people: portraits of monks, peasants, shepherds, as well as women and children in national clothes. The artist's works convey the warmth and sincerity of these people, as well as the beauty and uniqueness of their cultural heritage. Shi Golyan shows sincere love for the Tibetan people and culture, his works are full of respect for their way of life and customs. This shows his desire to capture the beauty and peculiarities of the different nationalities of China, preserving their unique features and traditions.

However, the end of the twentieth century is characterized not only by the realistic trends of ren-wu. After the weakening of state control over art, the influence of modernism returned to Ren-wu painting. For example, Hu Yongkai (胡永凯) combines the traditions of Chinese painting and the aesthetics of Western modernism in his works. Hu Yongkai is known for his free, expressive style, which manifests itself in dynamic strokes and bright colors. His technique allows you to convey emotional intensity while maintaining lightness and a sense of spontaneity. Hu Yongkai is known for his special approach to color. Unlike traditional Chinese painting, which is usually dominated by muted tones, he uses bright, saturated colors: red, orange, yellow and blue. His palette gives the paintings a modern sensuality and expressiveness, while at the same time preserving their cultural roots. The composition of his works is often asymmetrical, which creates a feeling of naturalness and lightness. He is able to find harmony in the arrangement of figures and empty space, leaving the background unfilled or light, which is typical for traditional Chinese painting. Such compositional simplicity emphasizes the central figures and symbolism of each image. In addition, in his works painted in the Guohua style, he actively borrows elements of Western modernism, such as stylization of forms and a bright color palette. The images of women in his paintings, such as The Moon Festival, refer to Modigliani's expressive manner.

It is worth noting that an important feature of modern figurative painting in China is that modern artists more often draw from nature ^[21], depicting real models and real life circumstances, while until the twentieth century, ren-wu painting was created on the principle of copying classical images. Thus, modern paintings by Ren-wu are not only characterized by great realism and psychologism, they are also characterized by a wide variety of subjects, allowing them to convey the artist's feelings and reflect real life. Consequently, the most important change in the genre of ren-wu was not only a change in the technique of depicting human figures, perspective, and the use of saturated colors, but also a change in its meaningful, semantic component, making it closer to the life of the Chinese people and Chinese society.

Thus, in conclusion, it should be noted that ren-wu is the oldest genre of Chinese painting, which went through significant transformations in the twentieth century. Previously very traditionalist, this genre in the twentieth century underwent the greatest changes among all genres of traditional Chinese Guohua painting.

This genre has changed under the influence of both external (the study of Western painting techniques by Chinese artists) as well as internal (changes in the political situation in the country) circumstances. Although ren-wu's painting borrowed from various Western styles, including modernist ones, realism had the most significant influence on it.

Modern artists often bring elements of Western art to ren-wu, such as volume and chiaroscuro, adding depth and realism. Anatomical accuracy and dynamism of human images began to play an important role. Painting began to strive to reflect real life, rather than copying samples of the past. This made it possible to update the genre, which had fallen into decline by the beginning of the twentieth century, and breathe new life into it. The modern genre of ren-wu is characterized by a combination of classical Gohua techniques (the use of fine lines, traditional materials, and an undetalized background) with the techniques of the Western school of painting (realism, depth, dynamism).

Also in the twentieth century, the theme of the paintings changed. They have become not only closer to reality by drawing from nature. They reflected the authors' reflection on the events that happened to the country and the people. Increasingly, the heroes of the paintings were not outstanding personalities, but ordinary citizens and their lives. Thus, not only the form, but also the content of the paintings has changed qualitatively.

Nevertheless, the unique identity of the ren-wu genre remains. Modern Chinese art actively uses and rethinks the traditions of this genre. Today, artists turn to this genre in order to preserve cultural heritage and express new ideas inherent in the modern world. Ren-wu remains an actual genre, as it embodies the desire of the Chinese people to develop while preserving millennial cultural traditions.