The problem of individuality in traditional Tuvan culture

Danchay-ool Ayas Anatolyevich ORCID: 0000-0002-0060-8783 PhD in Philosophy Associate Professor; Department of Philosophy and Social Sciences and Humanities; Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education 'Krasnoyarsk State Medical University named after Professor V.F. Voino-Yasenetsky' of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation 124 Marx Street, room 401, Krasnoyarsk Territory, 660022, Russia dayas@inbox.ru Other publications by this author

Davaa Ekaterina Karbyi-Oolovna PhD in History Associate Professor; Department of Philosophy; Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education 'Tuvan State University' 667000, Russia, Republic of Tyva, Kyzyl, Lenin str., 5, office 205 super.kate17@yandex.ru Other publications by this author

1. Introduction

The development of modern civilization creates a situation in which almost every person interacts with a large number of people. Naturally, this leads to an increased need for self-identification and identification of one's uniqueness. But the lack of clear mechanisms for meeting these needs creates a feeling of frustration in a person. In addition, each culture creates its own unique forms of individualization. Together, this causes the emergence of many forms of identity, the adoption of which becomes problematic. In this context, the Tuvan cultural and historical tradition stands out, in which an authentic system of individualization has been formed. The uniqueness of the traditional Tuvan culture lies in the synthesis of the pagan worldview and Buddhist philosophy, as well as in the Tuvan language itself, which belongs to the Turkic group. The syncretism of this culture has shaped the original perception of man, which does not separate him from nature. At the same time, transformational processes inevitably occur in modern Tuvan society that change the understanding of individuality, namely, the mixing of the traditional understanding of man and modern globalized models of individualization.

An urgent problem is the disclosure of individuality in various cultural traditions formed in dissimilar worldview paradigms, as people constantly interact with representatives of other cultures and groups. The analysis of these changes is an important task, the implementation of which will help to better understand the essence of the processes of changing traditional society in modern times. Directly in the Tuvan culture, the relevance of this problem is proved by different levels of ethnic identification among young and older generations ^[1], the division of values between rural and urban populations ^[2], which is a consequence of transformational processes in culture and society arising from modernization and urbanization. Therefore, the problem of individuality in traditional Tuvan culture requires special attention, since the uniqueness of an individual becomes a key factor in determining his social status and prospects for the development of local communities.

2. Literature review

The socio-philosophical problems of Tuvan culture were not the subject of in-depth scientific analysis due to the fact that the attention of researchers was focused on ethnographic and historical issues. At the same time, the fundamental ideological features of Tuvan society have become the object of research in recent decades. The religious aspects of the syncretism of Tuvan culture were revealed in the publications of O.M. Khomushku ^{[3; 4]}. The problems of identification of Tuvans from Russia, Mongolia and China were revealed by M.V. Mongush ^[5]. A thorough analysis of the social adaptation of Tuvan society to modernity is carried out in the works of C.K. Lamazhaa ^{[6; 7]}. The evolution of Tuvan culture is analyzed in the publications of A.K. Kuzhuget ^[8]. The cultural aspects of the transformation of Tuvan art have become the subject of V. Y. Suzukey's research ^[9]. The peculiarities of the anthropology of Tuvan culture were revealed in the publications of Ch.O. Adygbai ^[10].

A thorough analysis of the modernization of traditional cultures was carried out at the end of the last century by N. Hirai ^[11]. The definition of the essence of the concept of "traditional culture" is revealed in the publications of A.V. Kostina ^[12]. The ethnosocial processes of Siberia were analyzed by Yu.V. Popkov and E.A. Tyugashev ^[13]. The influence of values on individuality and the differences between individualism and collectivism has been the subject of research by G. Hofstede ^[14]. Consideration of traditional culture as a mechanism for the transmission of values and norms through generations was carried out by A.V. Zakharov ^[15]. The connection between culture and personality was revealed by M. Mead, R. Benedict ^[16].

At the same time, the presented studies did not focus on concepts describing the understanding of individuality in Tuvan culture. In addition, such components of this concept as uniqueness, the individual, the soul, the subject have also not been disclosed in scientific works. Also, in cultural and philosophical studies, the logic of the formation of the concept of individuality in European culture from the standpoint of comparative analysis has not been revealed. Filling in the indicated gaps is the task of this study.

3. Methodology

In order to reveal the noted problem, it is necessary to conduct a socio-philosophical analysis of the relationship between the worldview and the social system of Tuvan culture, which requires the use of an integrated approach. As a methodology, this article uses the sociocultural approach described in the works of P. Sorokin ^[17], T. Parsons ^[18]. From modern publications devoted to the analysis of the development of the socio-cultural method, detailed studies by Y.L. Belyakova and A.L. Temnitsky are highlighted ^[19]. The sociocultural approach was applied directly to Tuvan culture in the works of Yu.V. Popkov and E.A. Tyugashev ^[20]. According to the chosen approach, culture forms social norms and values, and social relations, in turn, influence cultural practices. In addition, in the socio-cultural approach, it is valuable for this study to emphasize that fundamental socio-cultural changes (for example, a change in cultural paradigms) have a significant impact on society, unlike political or economic transformations. This is due to the fact that culture determines people's motivation and behavior ^[21]. As a result, the use of a socio-cultural approach in the analysis of the phenomena of a particular culture allows us to free ourselves from determinism and reduction of the subject of research, which arises in the case of searching in authentic traditions for universal concepts and concepts, one of which is individuality.

The complexity of the problem also requires the use of other methods. To reveal the qualitative changes in the development of Tuvan culture and worldview, the historical method is used in this study. The logical analysis was used to identify the relationship between the features of Tuvan culture and worldview, in addition, the institutional method made it possible to identify social institutions in Tuvan society. The conceptual method allowed us to reveal the essence of differences in the formation of individuality in Tuvan and European cultures.

4. The results of the study

The Republic of Tuva is surrounded by mountain ranges, which has caused limited transport accessibility, as well as detachment and peripherality in relation to historical empires. The natural landscape of Tuva is unique, as there are various climatic zones in the closed territory (tundra, taiga, steppe, desert). This has led to the extreme diversity of flora and fauna. In turn, such wealth influenced the syncretism of the Tuvan worldview, which organically interweaves human activity into natural processes. Tuvan culture is the result of a long historical process, during which autochthonous ideological elements are mixed with allochthonous cultural phenomena. The picture of the world of Tuvan culture is characterized by syncretism, in which there is no division of thinking into concrete and abstract entities, universals do not arise, the subject and object of thinking are not distinguished. Being and cognition are conceptually formed within the framework of naturalistic thinking, but not formalized in a conceptual system and lexicon. At the same time, Tuvan culture has not developed metaphysical and transcendental levels that describe abstractions and universals in European culture, since contemplation is the most appropriate in conditions of critical human dependence on natural forces. The conceptual and categorical system was not created due to the lack of need for it. Therefore, the pagan beliefs of the Tuvans have become the central element of a multi-level worldview that unites the earthly and otherworldly world. As a result, the social system of Tuvans is built on tribal community and territorial unity. Each person found himself in a local community operating with a syncretic worldview system. This created a certain harmony of the intersubjective space.

Tuvan culture was formed in the depths of centuries in a complex of pagan beliefs, in which natural forces were spiritualized and human dependence on them was emphasized. Since the XVIII century, Buddhism began to penetrate into the space of Tuva, which was thoroughly entrenched in the cosmological system and in the Tuvan language. As a result, a synthesis of Buddhism with autochthonous beliefs emerged, which manifested itself, for example, in the coexistence of the cult of lamas and shamans. Subsequently, during the modernization of the Soviet period, a monotheistic worldview was superimposed on top of this synthesis, which is preserved within the framework of materialistic thinking. Within the framework of the Marxist methodology, the specificity of traditional culture was denied ^[22], which led to distortions in the descriptions of cultural phenomena. In addition, during the modernization of Tuvan culture, the material culture has changed dramatically, which led to the transformation of spiritual culture.

The social structure of traditional Tuvan society is characterized by traditionalism, patriarchy, strong family relations ^[23], as well as the functioning of the main social institution in the form of a complex family with several generations. Social norms manifested themselves as a situational system for which the world appears as an action ^{[24, p.57]}. Nature itself was thought of as a spiritualized entity, therefore spiritual flaws were thought of as physical, man had to and sought to correspond to the higher spirituality of nature.

Due to the fact that in Tuvan culture, society does not stand out from the harmony of nature, and the individual is not thought of as an indivisible social unit, social connections do not reveal their abstract meaning. They actually repeat the basic aspects of the social institution of the family in the form of natural processes in which the younger ones respect and listen to the experience of the older ones and at the same time have a certain degree of autonomy.

In the process of modernization, the social system is changing, cultural continuity is being broken, and the position of the individual is changing. In addition, as a result of industrialization, the social institution of the family begins to transform in Tuvan society, namely, a nuclear family is being formed, in which only parents become the bearer of culture and collective experience. Older relatives who were part of a complex family are moving away, their influence on the process of cultural continuity between generations is decreasing. Generic self-identification for modern Tuvans is losing its influence, but in general remains relevant. The transformation of the social system is intensifying in the 21st century, at the same time, family relations in the context of the development of information and communication technologies are even being strengthened and updated ^[25]. Such changes occur as a result of the Europeanization of Tuvan society.

Individuality is a concept formed in the European paradigm, for which the center of the nature-society-individual system gradually shifted towards the individual. Historically, individuality is conceptually formulated in ancient Greek philosophy in the form of an appeal to the atom, which is found in a person in the form of a soul. For the European-Christian understanding of the individual, it is necessary to operate with projective thinking in the analysis of cognition and being, because linear perception of time and total thinking unfold a person's life path into a unique trajectory. Also, rational and analytical thinking prevails in European philosophy, which is based on universals that are necessary in a total understanding of the world. In this paradigm, one way or another, a person operates with a speculative method in which an abstract object is distinguished. Therefore, abstract concepts of the individual, personality, and individuality are inevitably constructed in the social problems of European philosophy. Naturally, understanding the individual as an indivisible social unit becomes a necessary stage in the formation of this tradition.

According to the philosophical encyclopedia, individuality is defined as "the unique originality of a phenomenon, a separate being, a person" ^{[26, p. 102]}. Based on this understanding, the sociocultural approach reveals the clear influence of Christian anthropology on the understanding of human existence. European philosophy necessarily appealed to a single subject of social relations, since within the framework of the religious worldview, individual responsibility became the central element of eschatological teaching and motivation. Therefore, in Christian culture, the problem of human sinfulness and responsibility forms the need for the absolutization of freedom ^[27], which creates unlimited prospects for individualization. A European needs individuality to expand and realize his freedom, which is critically important in modern conditions, since this removes restrictions on self-realization. In such a worldview, internal motivation is stronger than external motivation, so it is more important for a person to "own" goals.

In addition, God in Christianity, being a person, is unique and peculiar, and man, respectively, having a soul, is also unique and inimitable. Also in the European Christian culture, God is substantial and self-sufficient, but man is self-sufficient only in relation to society. The emergence of individuality is influenced by self-awareness, in which a person not only separates himself from others, but also correlates himself with others. Through this, a person evaluates himself from the perspective of other people. As a result, individuality in European culture is understood through the concept of substance. Individuality as the basis of anthropology formed the mystical unity of man with the transcendent. Uniqueness becomes the foundation of soteriology and spiritual connection with the personalized Absolute. The individual is known through the common ^{[26, p. 103]}. It is logical that in the European philosophical tradition, the substantialization of being and cognition, and, accordingly, anthropology, is being formed.

A different understanding of man and individuality is formed in traditional culture, in which the locus of thought creates a special understanding of social relations. The very social structure of traditional Tuvan culture is incomparable with modernist ones ^[22]. A person is thought of as born in the harmony of nature, which determines his original integrity. In this regard, researchers emphasize the main feature of Tuvan culture is syncretism, which manifests itself in the identity of the human and natural worlds ^{[24, p. 27]}.

The traditional Tuvan worldview is based on the idea of the cyclicity of nature, from which the individual starts in his self-consciousness ^[28]. In it, a person is not thought of as something integral, which is critical for the Christian worldview. In defining their individuality, representatives of Eastern culture, of which Tuvan is also a part, focus on interconnectedness and interdependence from other people ^[29]. Individuality is determined depending on the context, which in the conditions of traditional Tuvan culture is completely shaped by nature. The concept of uniqueness of life is revealed in the pre-Buddhist views of Tuvans ^[30]. The uniqueness of nature was a guideline in understanding its uniqueness for Tuvans, and life itself was considered as a unity based on diversity ^{[24, p. 19]}.

Due to the contextuality of Tuvan culture, a person sees himself not only as a part of society, but as a part of nature. Nature is the main teacher and spiritual mentor for traditional cultures ^[31]. Therefore, in Tuvan culture, the spiritual is inseparable from nature, which looks extremely contradictory for European anthropocentric culture.

In traditional culture, the structure of social and spiritual ties has a different character, which does not require the initiative and mobilization of each individual ^[32]. This creates a space for contemplative interaction with nature, in which unlimited opportunities for freedom and self-realization (freedom of movement, freedom of activity, freedom to study natural processes) are preserved. Traditional society is stable, therefore, in modern times it does not disappear, but reveals itself in new forms. This ensures the stability of the social structure and low mobility. Naturally, such a society is characterized by the primacy of the collective and life in the local space.

The study of the syncretism of traditional Tuvan culture requires an analysis of its ontology and epistemology, which on the one hand is contradictory, but on the other hand it is necessary in the context of the application of European rational philosophical methodology.

From an epistemological point of view, Tuvan culture lacks universals and categories, instead there are mythologems that construct a real picture of the world. Due to the absence of universal anthropology and cosmology in the traditional Tuvan culture, and, consequently, metaphysical and transcendental, abstraction does not manifest itself in the worldview of Tuvinians, since situational thinking formed the concreteness of world perception. It is logical that in the epistemological model of the Tuvinians, contemplation prevails, and not rational-analytical cognition. As a result, it is impossible to find non-native concepts and words in Tuvan culture. Traditional Tuvan culture has not developed an individual human attitude to the world, therefore, the concepts of individuality and personality have not been formed in it ^[33].

In Tuvan culture, all nature and all living organisms are endowed with the qualities of uniqueness and are given unconditional value ^[34]. Much in nature exists only due to uniqueness, the individual exists due to the ancestral, the person lives thanks to the experience and wisdom of the ancestors. Every being is a natural creature, his life is filled with inner expediency, which man has no right to violate. From the point of view of modern rational thinking, every living being is fighting for resources and procreation. At the same time, there are well-known examples of biological altruism, in which the survival of relatives becomes the key to the survival of an individual organism. In the conditions of the spiritual dissolution of man in nature, the ethical justification of the need for a careful attitude towards the living becomes consistent and natural. Therefore, the wealth of nature becomes a source of a spiritual value system for an individual. Tuvans could not harm living beings, cut down trees or hunt without urgent need, even clothes were created to minimize the negative impact on flora and fauna. Modern society restricts methods of interaction with nature, strengthens utilitarian methods, forms consumer attitudes and exploitation. The naturalistic syncretism of traditional cultures sees nature as a source of wisdom, and man's task is to delve into it. Traditional society values people who are inquisitive and deeply understand the essence of natural processes.

Understanding the diversity of nature and life leads to an authentic understanding of the soul in Tuvan culture. The soul in the European sense, namely from the point of view of an immaterial substance, does not have an adequate translation in the Tuvan language, since the analogue "sunezin", often used in modern language, is associated with the intellectual sphere ^{[30, p.18]} and is used not only in relation to humans, but also to animals. In addition, the indigenous peoples of Siberia have an idea of the multiplicity of human souls (lifetime and posthumous, material and immaterial) ^{[30, p. 74]}. Paradoxically, the consciousness of the peoples of Southern Siberia individualized and personified individual signs of the human body ^{[24, p. 59]}. In general, the unsubstantial character of the soul in archaic cultures is found in initiation rites, through which a person died and was reborn in a different social status. For example, age-related periodization based on a twelve-year cycle is found in Tuvan culture ^[35]. In addition, it is important to take into account the influence of Buddhism on Tuvan culture, in which human consciousness is considered as a stream ^[36], which is contrary to the European understanding of the subject of thought as a substance. As a result, the soul, being the central element of Christian anthropology, reveals itself in a completely different way in Tuvan culture, which leads to an authentic understanding of individuality.

According to E. Durkheim, in a preindustrial society based on tradition, the individual is found outside the "I" ^{[37, p. 69]}. In the social structure of modern society, in order to individualize, the subject "I" distances himself from the collective "we". However, in the syncretic worldview of Tuvan culture, a person cannot distance himself from nature, especially since he does not distinguish himself from society. Individualization in this case is carried out in the discovery of oneself in nature and society.

Individuality in natural diversity manifests itself as the necessary essence of all living things. Thus, it is revealed not as uniqueness in an abstract society, but as the uniqueness of a natural creation, deep and priceless in its essence. Human individuality was conceptually revealed in Tuvan culture in organic unity with nature. The spiritual connection of man with living beings, which was formed in harmony with society, was emphasized. In this approach, the absolute value of the individual is indicated, since he is included in the unity of unique natural creations.

5. Conclusions

Thus, the analysis of the formation of the concept of individuality in European culture allows for a deeper understanding of the peculiarities of its deployment in other cultures. The naturalistic worldview of Tuvans forms a special system of social ties in which the individual is in unity not only with society, but also with nature. The richness of flora and fauna has formed the utmost reverence of Tuvinians for nature, therefore the absolute value and uniqueness of life is the central element of the worldview of Tuvan culture. Based on this, an authentic understanding of individuality is formed, which is found not only in humans, but also in any living being. Such a difference from the European understanding of individuality arises from the fact that this concept is formed in the vector of religious monotheistic thinking, which interprets the soul and man through the concept of substance. In Tuvan culture, the conceptual core is built on operating with a closed locus, without constructing universals and substantializing a person. In addition, in Tuvan culture, a person is revealed as a complex of many entities and phenomena. This is due to contextuality and situationality, as well as the embedding of social relations in natural processes. As a result, individuality in traditional Tuvan culture is revealed not by distancing itself from society, but by emphasizing its unconditional value and inclusion in the natural harmony of nature.

The conclusions drawn fit into the chosen socio-cultural method, since the ideological foundation of traditional Tuvan culture determines the deployment of individuality. The preservation of the autochthonous social system in Tuva occurs despite the transformational processes of culture and the penetration of allochthonous concepts and concepts. As a result, the combination of methods allowed us to reveal that in the traditional Tuvan culture, individuality was revealed not through a substantial understanding of the human subject, but through its organic inclusion in the living and priceless unity of nature.

The identified aspects determine the essence of changes in the social structure of modern Tuvan society in the context of modernization and globalization. In addition, the results of this study can be used in pedagogical practice and the construction of methodological materials in teaching the basics of traditional and syncretic cultures.