The Virtues of Confucian Philosophy in Modern Public Relations

Dorskii Andrei Yur'evich ORCID: 0000-0002-0991-2941 Doctor of Philosophy Professor; Department of Mass Communications Management; St. Petersburg State University 199034, Russia, St. Petersburg, Universitetskaya nab., 7-9 dorski@yandex.ru

Ma Sin'i ORCID: 0009-0004-9027-9689 Postgraduate student; Institute of Higher School of Journalism and Mass Communications; St. Petersburg State University 199034, Russia, Saint Petersburg, Universitetskaya nab., 7-9 fxsjxfh@126.com

Problem statement

Ethics of public relations has traditionally been the focus of attention of scientists, and often PR practitioners ^[1]; ^[2]; ^[3]; ^[4]; ^[5]; ^[6]. Sh. Bowen explains this interest by saying that ethical decisions strengthen trust, and trust increases public confidence in the organization and its moral authority ^{[7, p. 3998]}. Thus, ethics helps in solving basic professional PR tasks.

However, the application of moral norms in practice is associated with a number of problems, one of which is the difference in understanding and building communications in different societies. In particular, Ni Chen and H. Kalbertson note that in China, public relations is a relatively new area that is in the process of self-determination and at the same time is changing rapidly ^[8]. Based on the theory of G. Hofstede, they formulate a number of fundamental obstacles to the development of public relations that exist in Chinese culture. The title of their chapter in the Handbook of Global Public Relations is indicative: "Public Relations in China: a teenager with growth disorders."

While agreeing with many of the theses of Ni Chen and H. Kalbertson, we believe that it is advisable to see in national specifics not only difficulties for the development of PR, but also a contribution that can enrich the global culture of communications. The Confucian value system has not only had a profound impact on the history of China, but also has important practical significance in modern society, especially in the field of public relations. The integration of traditional value systems with modern public relations practices can help professionals deal more effectively with complex moral challenges in intercultural communication.

Background of the issue

Scientists have been paying attention to business ethics in China since the full inclusion of the Chinese economy in the global market ^[9]; ^[10]; ^[11]. From 1998 to 2008, 90 articles on this issue were published in the Journal of Business Ethics alone ^{[12, p. 1]}, and in 2009 a special issue of this publication was published. In the future, the research interest in the topic does not weaken ^[13]. Unfortunately, we have to state that in Russian science, despite the presence of a strong school of Chinese studies and economic ties between Russia and China, a completely insufficient number of works are devoted to Chinese business ethics ^[14]; ^[15].

However, the applicability of Confucian ethics in public relations is practically not studied not only in Russia. Among the few exceptions is an article by Australian researcher Zhu Yunxia, which notes the lack of research on the application of Confucian ethics in marketing communications and analyzes the ethics of communication within the framework of exhibition activities in China ^[16].

Researchers have qualified Confucian ethics in different ways. There is a widespread view of it as a role ethics ^[17]; ^[18], in this article we join those scientists who consider Confucian ethics as an ethics of virtue ^[19].

The ethics of virtue gained popularity in the second half of the 20th century, when an "anthropological turn" took place in English-speaking philosophy ^[20]. According to this approach, a certain moral quality of the individual is placed at the center of reflection, the correspondence of which determines the ethics of the act. "Virtue is attitudes, inclinations, or character traits that allow us to be and conduct business in such a way as to develop this potential [who we can become. — A.D., M.S.]. They allow us to follow the ideals we have accepted. Honesty, courage, compassion, generosity, loyalty, integrity, justice, self—control and prudence are all examples of virtues"^[21].

Due to the emergence of a significant body of literature devoted to the ethics of virtue in business ^[22]; ^[23]; ^[24]; ^[25] professional activity in the field of communications inevitably had to be analyzed based on this approach. So, in 1990 O. Williams and P. Murphy investigated the well-known case of Tylenol based on this very concept ^[26]. More than ten years later, in 2004, J. Harrison, emphasizing the importance of ethics of virtue for PR, pointed out that the controversy on this issue had literally just begun — an article by M. Valle, published in 2003 ^[27]. Finally, in 2015, N. Browning stated that most studies of PR ethics still proceed from the opposition of utilitarianism and deontology, without considering the ethics of virtue ^[28].

From the point of view of N. Browning — typical for apologists of virtue ethics — the latter combines the advantages of deontological and utilitarian ethics, but is devoid of their disadvantages: "In contrast to the deontological fixation on an unobservable preliminary intention and the utilitarian prediction of uncertain future consequences, virtue ethics focuses on a certain and observable moral factor acting in the present ... Virtue (for example wisdom, justice, courage) act as guiding rules for action, similar to Kant's categorical imperative, which ensures beneficial behavior. However, unlike deontology, ethics of virtue proceeds from personal interests: the subject's goal is to achieve his own well-being, which he can achieve only by acting virtuously" ^{[28, p. 14-15]}. Later, the author expanded the review of ethical teachings, but remained faithful to the ethics of virtue ^[29].

Traditionally and quite understandably, researchers see the origins of virtue ethics in the teachings of Aristotle, sometimes "supplementing" it with the theology of Thomas Aquinas ^[30]; ^[31]. There are isolated attempts to consider the ethics of PR in the context of the Christian doctrine of virtues ^[32]. At the junction of interest in the ethics of virtue and the Eastern ethics of business, comparative studies of Confucian and Aristotelian ethics are born ^[33].

Despite this, we can state that at the moment the possibility of understanding the ethics of public relations through the prism of Confucian ethics of virtue has not been the subject of special research.

Research methods

Different researchers of Confucian business ethics emphasize its various components. The greatest attention in the literature is paid to Guangxi (关系, personal relationships) ^[34]. The methodology of virtue ethics encourages us to focus primarily on the personal qualities of a person, which are manifested and improved in interactions, and not on the characteristics of the interactions themselves. Highlighting the Confucian virtues, we proceed from a theory based on the views of Confucius, but in its modern form developed somewhat later. According to Confucius, a noble person should possess three basic qualities: Zhen (仁, benevolence, humanity), and (义; 義, righteousness, justice), Li (礼; 禮, decency, rituals). Meng Tzu (in the European tradition, Mencius, 372-289 BC) added Zhi (智, wisdom, knowledge), and Dong Zhongshu (179-104 BC), the great Confucian scholar of the Han Dynasty, Xin (信, sincerity, loyalty). He called these virtues the "five constants" that should be cultivated by people ^[35]. In this part, the methodology of our research coincides with the approach applied by E. Le Duc to the ethics of journalism ^[36].

The study is structured as a reconstruction of each of the five constants, followed by a review of specific business practices. When selecting cases, we did not limit ourselves to Chinese business in order to find out the possible significance of Confucian virtues for foreign and international public relations. Thus, we can verify the previously stated thesis about the enrichment of the world culture of communications at the expense of the traditions of different — in this case, Chinese — cultures.

To reconstruct the meanings of Confucian terms, we used analytical, synthetic and inductive methods of processing case studies. Through a comparative analysis of classical Confucian philosophy and cases characterizing modern business ethics, an understanding of the differences and similarities in both value systems, as well as the possible positive and negative role of Confucianism for public relations, is being deepened.

Zhen

In the "Showen jiezi", the first hieroglyphic dictionary in China and even in the world, it is explained that Zhen is an affinity, the hieroglyph of which consists of a person and two ^[37]. As everyone knows, the composition of hieroglyphs has its own special meaning, and the hieroglyph "Zhen" consists of two parts, the left one is "man", the right one is "two", which means a philosophical category that expresses mutual relations between human beings.

The concept of "Wife" clearly shows the characteristic of virtue, which is also characteristic of European thought: achieving one's own well-being lies through caring for the well-being of others. The classical Confucian text "Analects of Confucius (Lun Yu)" says: "Wanting to establish himself, he establishes others; wanting to achieve himself, he helps others to achieve" ^{[38, p. 83]}. This is a concrete manifestation of goodwill. Caring for others and public interests are the foundation of Confucianism.

A representative of the Confucian school of Meng Tzu argued: "a humane person loves people" ^{[39, p. 141]}, only people with benevolence and virtue in their hearts can make the right choice in the face of good and evil. Confucius also mentioned that "only those who possess benevolence and virtue can love and hate others" ^{[38, p. 45]}. According to Xie Xuanjun, when Confucianism talks about Zhen, it is not only about love for people, but also about hatred. Of course, Confucius did not say that we should love or hate anyone, but love is inevitably connected with hatred, and these two concepts exist in opposition to each other. But only when a person reaches Zhen, he can experience the right love and hate ^[40].

The path to further realization of Zhen lies through "dedication" and "generosity". The principles of "devotion" and "generosity" are an important part of Confucius' thought, which permeates all aspects of his thinking. This is also the main requirement of Zhen ^{[38, p. 49]}.

For modern public relations specialists, the Confucian idea of "devotion" basically means the need for public relations personnel to comply with their social responsibilities and affirm the idea of serving the people. Huawei, a well-known Chinese company, has adopted "bright virtue, kinship with the people and stopping at perfect goodness" from the book "The Great Doctrine" as one of the concepts of its corporate culture, emphasizing that the company should be one that serves people ^{[41, p. 1540]}.

In modern social relations, this is actually a manifestation of the idea that one should treat one's neighbor as oneself. PR specialists ensure competition in the market and in politics, but, following the Rules, they must insist on legitimate ways of competition, abandon unethical competitive behavior, and moreover, competition does not exclude cooperation. For example, if we talk about smartphone operating systems, Google's Android and Apple's iOS are the main competitors. However, the Google search engine, maps and other services are pre-installed on Apple devices, which makes it possible for the two sides to cooperate. This collaboration provides Google with a huge user base, while at the same time providing Apple users with richer services.

It is worth noting that Zhen is also a moral limiter for the absolutization of selflessness and selflessness, and even more so for the practices of "emotional investment" and "moral abduction". "Emotional investments" means manipulating the emotional attachments of audiences, creating baseless feelings of trust or loyalty. "Moral abduction" refers to situations where companies use moral or ethical arguments to gain support that actually serves solely their corporate interests and not the interests of society.

And

The most basic meaning of the word And is "kindness" or "admiration", i.e. the standards and criteria of goodness that people should follow in their thoughts and behavior. The relationship between "righteousness and benefit (a descending tone, further: Li 4)" has always been an old and eternally new conflict, as well as an important issue in traditional Chinese morality. In the dictionary "Showen jiezi", the word Li 4 is explained as follows: "Profit, sharpness, comes from a knife. Harmony and harmony lead to profit, so the symbol produces from harmony and economy. "I Ching" says: "Benefits and profits come from just agreement and harmony" ^{[37, p. 115]}.

"A noble man thinks about morality, a low man thinks about profit" is one of the important phrases of the teachings of Confucius. He believed that Li 4 should obey And, preference should be given to the detriment of Li 4. Unrestrained pursuit of personal gain can lead to disruption and destruction of this order. Therefore, people seeking personal gain are considered base. With the development of Confucianism in subsequent generations, this idea turned into an acute dichotomy of Yi and Li 4, which is a view of them as mutually exclusive concepts. Therefore, in Confucian doctrine, the pursuit of righteousness or greed for gain is clearly used as a boundary that distinguishes a noble husband from a scoundrel.

Secondly, Confucianism does not simply abandon Li 4, but requires that people consciously profit in a "righteous way." Confucius noted: "Wealth and dignity are what everyone wants, but if you don't get them in the right way, you won't enjoy them; poverty and meanness are what everyone hates, but if you don't get rid of them in the right way, you won't get rid of them" ^{[38, p. 46]}. Therefore, "Riches obtained in an unjust way are like floating clouds in the sky for me" ^{[38, p. 90]}. Mencius also noted: "The common desire of all people is to occupy an honorable position" ^{[39, p. 199]}. But people should "not lose their moral standards when they are poor, and not deviate from their human principles when they are rich" ^{[39, p. 222]}. "He will not give anything to others and will not take anything away from others if it is not morally right" ^{[39, p. 161]}. This means that a person should think about righteousness and morality whenever he sees possessions and goods, and only in this way can he become a perfect person.

Public relations requires that all decisions and actions of organizations, although they seek their own interests, are primarily "altruistic", and "self—interest" is the result of the "altruistic" behavior of the organization. Public relations should realize their own interests in an "altruistic" way, without violating moral principles and laws, and achieve a harmonious unity between altruism and their own interests. According to the English author of the approach, Sam Black, "in this approach, the concept of PR is understood as the art and science of achieving social harmony through mutual understanding based on truth and full awareness. In the altruistic approach, the main task is to serve society, and the interests of your company take a back seat. This approach is most often used in European countries" ^{[42, p. 22]}. The basic principle of public relations is mutual benefit, that is, first give others the opportunity to benefit, and then eventually benefit themselves.

On February 25, 2024, the founder of Wahaha, the famous Chinese entrepreneur Zong Qing, died. After his death, many fans began to buy Wahaha products as a sign of remembrance. Song started his career from a low position and founded the company at the age of 42, proving his place in the world through business. He provided employees with affordable housing, high standards of social protection and supported them in difficult times. Song was also actively involved in charity work and insisted on using high-quality materials for production, despite the possible increase in costs. His commitment to combining economic and social benefits reflects the "And" principle, emphasizing the importance of the public interest in business.

Lee

China is known as an ancient civilization and a country of etiquette. In the field of interpersonal communication, ancient Chinese society has always adhered to the tradition of appreciating staff and etiquette. In Confucianism, Li (礼：Li descending-ascending tone, hereinafter: Li 3) is a complex concept with rich content, denoting etiquette and manners, as well as social norms of behavior, and the function of etiquette is to regulate. It contains recommendations regarding vision and hearing, speech and actions, restraint and decency, as well as other aspects of grooming.

Confucianism attaches great importance to rituals. As for how to achieve benevolence, that is, love for others, both socially and individually, Confucius believed that the most important way is to "curb yourself and return to Li," that is, to restrain your thoughts, actions and deeds so that they do not violate moral principles. Therefore, a person is required "not to see what does not correspond to 3, not to listen to what does not correspond to 3, not to say what does not correspond to 3, and not to do what does not correspond to 3. Confucius also emphasized: "If you don't know 3, you won't be able to stand in society" ^{[38, p. 252]}. Therefore, when Confucius says that he got on his feet at the age of thirty (independent age), it means that he knew the "Lee 3" of that time, and that his words and actions were appropriate.

Lee's ethical value has become the foundation of the culture of traditional Chinese communication. Good and successful social relations in modern society cannot be achieved without harmony between people. The traditional Chinese theory of communication says: "If a noble husband observes Li 3, then there will be internal and external harmony and there will be no resentment," which coincides with the goal of modern public relations, which seek to establish a harmonious order of interpersonal interactions, and is a professional guide that modern public relations specialists can learn ^{[43, p. 236]}.

For example, Japanese service companies, especially hotels, restaurants and department stores, are known worldwide for their high standards of customer service. Often putting the customer first, these service companies are distinguished by extreme politeness, attention to detail and the prevention of errors in service, which embodies respect and observance of Li 3 in Confucian culture.

In short, Li 3, which Confucianism attaches great importance to, such as the order of seniority and childhood, the distinction between inferiors and superiors, as well as grooming and tools for various occasions, includes etiquette, which is required in public relations activities.

Zhi

Ji is wisdom. The influence of military wisdom has remained significant in traditional Chinese culture. Thus, during the period of Spring and Autumn and the Warring Kingdoms, the warrior class served as political strategists and intellectual elite, using their ingenuity and strategies to move between different feudal states. The wisdom of strategic thinking penetrates into the works of many thinkers. Especially in Sun Tzu's The Art of War, a classic work of human military science that is imbued with deep strategic ideas. Complex and diverse strategic actions are also presented in the famous literary work of Luo Guanzhong "The Three Kingdoms" (XIV century).

"Time and environment" play a key role in the strategy. "Time" means the right moment or chance for action, and "setting" means the current state of things or a trend. These two things are important to determine the outcome of the battle. Ancient China especially valued "heavenly time (the right time)" and considered it as important for success as "convenient location" and "people's cohesion". It is important to emphasize that we are talking not only about external factors, but about the conscious creation of chances — "accumulation of forces" and "creation of an environment". This is a process when efforts in various aspects, such as the balance of forces, psychological state, morale and courage of the troops, form a dominant advantage, which eventually brings natural success.

But today, the principles developed for military affairs are embodied in the peaceful conduct of business. To a large extent, this is due precisely to Zhi's orientation towards the inner potential of a person or organization. For example, Huawei has faced serious challenges in the international arena in recent years, especially due to restrictions imposed by the US government that threaten its global business. The company's response has been more complete self-realization: Huawei has increased the transparency of its activities, established research centers in a number of countries and engaged in the development of local education. The company actively developed internal management, invested in talent development and maintained an open dialogue with consumers, partners and governments. As a result, the company's image has improved and its market position has strengthened.

These measures reflect the understanding and application of the principles of "heavenly time", "earthly advantage" and "harmony of people". Through an integrated and strategic approach, Huawei has not only mitigated the impact of international issues, but also strengthened its leadership in global technology.

Blue

Xin is an important part of the ethical doctrine of Confucianism, emphasizing the unity of knowledge and actions, as well as the correspondence of words and deeds. Confucius said: "Without trust, the people will not stand" ^{[38, p. 149]}, "A person without trust does not deserve respect" ^{[38, p. 7]}, "In communicating with friends, trust is above all" ^{[38, p. 166]}, "The word must coincide with the deed, and the deed must lead to a result." In traditional Chinese culture, those who keep promises are considered noble men, and those who break them are considered unworthy people. Proverbs and sayings like "One word is worth a thousand gold", "The word of a noble husband is difficult to undo even with a fast horse" have long been a vivid expression of the nation's desire for Xin. The story of the "Three Kingdoms" can be considered as a model of behavior.

Meng Huo, the tribal chief in Nanzhong, was originally an enemy of the Shu Han state. During the Three Kingdoms period, Zhuge Liang, the prime minister of Shu, undertook campaigns to the south, during which he captured Meng Huo seven times, each time mercifully releasing him. This display of kindness and tolerance deeply influenced Meng Huo, who eventually completely submitted to Zhuge Liang and became his loyal supporter. Zhuge Liang proved that his goals are based on high principles and goals, believing in the ability to turn an enemy into a friend through trust and the right attitude.

Modern public relations also emphasize the importance of building trust. In a competitive market where products are often similar and price gives way to brand, reputation becomes a determining factor. Companies strive to obtain the title of "Reliable Company" and "Product trusted by consumers", emphasizing the importance of reputation and image in public evaluation.

The results of the study

Analyzing the influence of traditional Chinese Confucian culture on the development of modern public relations, it is important to see both positive and negative effects.

First of all, Confucianism asserts the principle of "man above all", believing that improving personal relationships leads to improving socio-economic ties. It is important to strive to harmonize interests and serve the people, making "man above all" the basis for the development of public relations.

Secondly, Confucian ethics supports emotional interaction leading to a unique feature of "feeling orientation".

The third aspect is the idea of harmony in a group, which contributes to the formation of a feature of "collective orientation" in public relations. The idea of harmony in a group is an important part of Confucian culture, and the desire for harmony in a group stands out as an important characteristic of the traditional culture of Confucianism in China.

Although traditional Chinese culture can have a positive impact on the development of modern public relations, one should not forget that there are significant contradictions between Confucianism and the ethics of PR.

Firstly, the "golden mean" and the "idea of equalization" limit the entrepreneurial spirit of people and deprive the whole society of a sense of competition, which reduces the demand for public relations. The "golden mean" is the basic concept of Confucianism, implying the pursuit of balance and harmony and the rejection of any extremes ^{[38, p. 82]}. However, in the development of modern public relations, this idea can be seen as a limitation, as it can suppress individual and collective drive and a sense of competition.

Secondly, the concept of "And above 4" weakens the managerial function of modern public relations. The opposition of "kindness" to "benefit" leads to the weakening and disappearance of the concept of commodity values.

Thirdly, the point of view focused on interpersonal relations has led to a complication of the social environment and contributed to the spread of vulgar relations, which hinders the implementation of the principles of public relations. Such an irrational approach as the "priority of human feelings" inevitably causes a large spread of both bad habits and customs, as well as vulgar relationships.

Prospects for further research work

This study is a comparative analysis of the ethical thoughts of Chinese classical Confucian philosophy and modern criteria of public relations. However, there are still some aspects that require further study.

First, future research could focus on case studies, for example, on how Confucian ideological value systems can be effectively integrated into modern PR strategies and contribute to solving practical problems in the context of globalization.

Secondly, despite the fact that this article deals not only with cultural differences and similarities, but also their impact on ethical PR concepts, there is still a need for more detailed studies of how these differences and similarities manifest themselves in practice. This mainly concerns the interaction of Eastern and Western ethical models, in which conflicts may arise and, conversely, opportunities for mutual benefit. It is necessary to study in depth how these cultural differences and similarities affect the results of PR, as well as how to develop common approaches that take these features into account.

Ultimately, in the future, it is necessary for PR specialists to develop professional educational programs and training for advanced training aimed at integrating Confucian ethical norms into their professional activities. This will increase the ethical preparedness of PR specialists as much as it will create wiser and culturally sensitive approaches when interacting with the public on a global scale.

Conclusions

A comparative study of classical Chinese Confucian philosophy and the principles of modern ethics of public relations leads to the conclusion that Confucianism and modern ethical virtues of public relations have some similarities. The key principles of Confucianism, such as trust, nobility, justice and respect for social norms, are reflected in the practice of communication between modern organizations and their audience.

The analysis shows that both Confucian ethics and modern principles of public relations emphasize the need to follow high ethical standards and responsible behavior in society. In this context, Confucianism can inspire modern public relations professionals to develop communication strategies that promote sustainable ethical relationships between organizations and their audiences.