Comparative study of the ways of euphemisms formation in Russian and Chinese languages

Yan Lin' Postgraduate student; Department of General and Comparative Historical Linguistics ; Lomonosov Moscow State University 119234, Russia, Moscow, Leninskie gory, 1, Building W, 705 P yanglin9420@yandex.ru

Introduction

Euphemism is used to replace taboos and expressions, frightening, unpleasant objects, obscene, unpleasant, non-etiquette names. The relevance of the study is due to an increase in the number of euphemisms of euphemisms in Russian and Chinese-speaking journalistic and colloquial styles based on material, including materials related to the new coronavirus infection. Russian Russian euphemisms are presented in the works of Zhang Chang "Euphemization in Russian and Chinese: linguoculturological and linguopragmatic aspects" ^[9], V. A. Akbash "Comparative analysis of national and cultural characteristics of the origin and functioning of euphemisms in Chinese and Russian languages" ^[1], as well as a study of euphemisms related to coronavirus, presented in the work of M. S. Belova and E.A. Kindler "Structural and semantic features of euphemisms and dysphemisms (based on German-language articles on the topic of coronavirus) ^[2] and Starshinova P.P. "Euphemisms in journalistic discourse (based on materials from English-language media devoted to coronavirus)" ^[8], while there are prospects comparison of methods of classification by semantic features and methods of formation of euphemisms in Russian and Chinese languages .

The purpose of the study is to compare lexical and semantic classifications, semantic features and ways of forming these euphemisms. To achieve the goal, you must complete the following tasks: 1) identify and present the translation of euphemisms from dictionaries and texts; 2) classify and analyze the ways of formation of these euphemisms based on semantic features; 3) compare the classifications of the ways of these euphemisms in Russian and Chinese.

The following publications became the practical basis of the research: Zhang Gungui "Dictionary of euphemisms of the Chinese language" (1996), Senichkina E.P. "Dictionary of euphemisms of the Russian language" (2008). The research methods are descriptive, deductive, comparative-historical and comparative. The theoretical and practical significance of the study is due to the increase in the number of euphemisms of euphemisms in Russian and Chinese-language materials.

Linguistic means of euphemism formation were proposed by V. P. Moskvin: metonymic nomination (in particular, metalepsis), metaphor (usually unclosed), antiphrasis, replacement with a close-sounding word, pronominalization (replacement with a pronoun), replacement of a word with the name of the corresponding generic concept, antonomasia, ellipsis, artificial bookishness, deliberately inaccurate speech, synecdoche (in particular transfer from the whole to a part), meiosis, direct designation of the subject of speech, book words and expressions (in particular, terms), foreign words ^[8]. A.M. Katsev identifies the following ways of forming euphemisms: semasiological shifts of meanings (narrowing of meaning, metonymization, metaphorization, semantic contrast), changes in the form of a word(abbreviations, word structure, formations with postpositions, conversion, affixation, contamination, sound similarity) and borrowings ^[3]. The study by M. L. Kovshova lists such ways of forming euphemisms as substitution of meaning, creation of the meaning of incompleteness of a sign or action, narrowing of meaning, expansion of meaning, use of borrowed semantics and creation of an abbreviation ^{[4, pp. 48-52]}. According to L.P. Krysin, the methods of euphemism formation are accepted: borrowing, expansion of the meaning of words, metonymic transfer, metaphorical transfer, antiphrasis, use of negative prefixes, abbreviation, assimilation, long periphrases, intentional ambiguity, intentional use of inaccurate names ^{[5, pp. 28-49]}.

Based on the methods of euphemism formation, Li Junhua identifies the following: phonetic, lexical, grammatical, stylistic ^{[12, pp. 52-83]}. Shao Junhang identifies such methods as phonetic, lexico-semantic, and grammatical. At the same time, from the point of view of the methods of lexical and semantic classification, the following groups should be distinguished: conceptual metaphor, conceptual metonymy, antonyms, synonyms, demonstrative pronoun, and from the point of view of grammatical methods, syntactic and morphological methods are distinguished ^{[13, pp.54-71]}.

1) words with diffuse semantics

Words with a diffuse meaning replace the taboo word with a fusion word. "Euphemistic encryption can be made by replacing the original word with a word with a diffuse meaning" ^{[11, p.188]}. According to Moskvin, "euphemistic words can be characterized on the basis of deliberate ambiguity (in this case, these words are completely related to the context) ^{[6, pp.58-70]}. These replacement words as a euphemism are characterized by a wide denotation.

This method for the design of euphemisms can be divided into 3 subsections:

(1) pronominalization, in other words, to replace an unpleasant word with a pronoun.

In the Chinese language 那个(this), 那谁 (someone), 某人 (someone), 那个人 (behold the man), 某某 (someone), 那什么 (that's something), 那玩意儿 (something), and so on.

In the Russian language, there are pronouns such as this, something, someone, somehow, somewhere, etc.; they are able to perform euphemistic encoding:

go somewhere, wait for someone, "About it" (the title of a poem by V.V. Mayakovsky).

(2) antonomasia (substitution of a proper name)

Antonomasia (pronomination) consists in using a proper name in the meaning of a common noun as a means of expression or vice versa ^{[6, p.171]}.

Some researchers attribute antonomasia (or pronomination) to varieties of metaphor [Moskvin, 2010]. In fact, antonomasia is a way to denote the denotation itself using the features and attribute corresponding to the denotation.

In ancient China, it is impossible to directly designate the name of the emperor, hence the word 皇帝 (emperor) how a euphemism replaces the name of the emperor.

In ancient times, the name of God "Jehovah" was forbidden not only to pronounce, but also to write. Therefore, there are proper words like Lord (from the Hebrew language Adonai), God, and so on. Jesus is actually a common name, and Jesus Christ as a proper name means the God of Christianity.

(3) ellipsis

Ellipsis is basically still possible to distinguish two types: substantive ellipsis and adjectival ellipsis, but in fact in some cases you can even skip the whole sentence, it depends on the context.

大... (big) means 大便 — kala, 小...(small) means 小 — - vm. straight. The notation of urine, 大的... (main), i.e., 大老婆 means a legitimate wife, 小的... (secondary), i.e., 小 в vm. Straight. designations of a mistress or concubine ^{[10, p.20]}.

You're here, you're nude, you're young, you're a husband... You are no longer there: you were: and kunal was young, in the silent abyss of years, did you put something to the courier? Of course, of course.

2) conceptual metaphor

As you know, a metaphor is a trope, forced to use words and expressions in a figurative sense based on similarity, analogy, etc., i.e. a metaphor is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on any similarity of their features. The similarity of the metaphor can be divided into three types:

(1) similarity in the location of two objects in relation to something (the tail of an animal is the tail of a comet, the nose of a man is the nose of a ship);

(2) Similarity in the assessment of subjects (clear day — clear style);

(3) similarity in the impression produced (black veil — black thoughts).

In the Chinese language 炒鱿鱼 (fry squid — squid is minimized heat, how to roll bed and leave.); 写下生命的休止符 (to enter a pause in life) is to die 玉殒香消 (the fragrance disappeared, and Jasper faded indicates the death of beauty), 偷吃禁果 (secretly to taste the forbidden fruit/ the fall)

In Russian: The place of rest, the last refuge, Bogova plot, bozhenivka, bozhya nivka denote the cemetery; Champs Elysees, the dwelling of shadows — hell or the afterlife.

3) conceptual metonymy

Metonymy is the transfer of a name from one subject to another based on their contiguity.

Even in Russian linguistics, synecdoche is perceived as both an independent trope and as a kind of metonymy ^{[6, p.174]}.

绿帽子 (green hat means a wife deceives her husband, now also used in the opposite case.), 金子 (well of gold), 一抔 or 一 一 (handful of earth) vm. cemetery; 黄泉 (yellow lake — one of the nine lakes) vm. the afterlife.

A box, the last apartment, a wooden mackintosh, a domovina mean a coffin.

4) a roundabout way of expressing an opinion

The roundabout manner of expressing an opinion is the so—called "talking with frills", and not directly denoting the denotation of speech. By designating words with the name of the corresponding generic concept of the denotation.

In ancient Chinese, the phraseologism 采薪之忧 means: the hardships of collecting firewood, apparently it seems to take care of collecting firewood due to lack of trees, bad weather, etc., but in fact it means taking care of not being able to collect firewood due to illness, in a word, this phraseologism means sick; 弃朝 (discard the imperial court in other words, the government), 弃群臣 (to discard the ministers), 弃天下 (to discard the celestial empire) here the imperial court, the minister, the celestial empire are closely connected with the emperor, "to discard" does not mean the emperor abdicates the throne, but the emperor has died, similar to this also 弃平平 (to discard their homes), 捐宾客 (the guests dispersed) denote the death of a simple man.

To live with people (vm. a servant; in fact, a servant does not own his own dwelling, but to live with people, with the owner); to put on a wooden sheepskin coat, put on an oak sheepskin coat, put on a pine sheepskin coat: a sheepskin coat is a kind of fur coat, and a wooden sheepskin coat, oak sheepskin coat, pine sheepskin coat in the meaning of a coffin, therefore a complete a stable expression means to die; to meet, to be friends, to mess with (whom), to walk (with whom), to be with someone.

5) respectful expression

A respectful expression is a way of forming a euphemism designed to use words with the meaning of respectful, noble or meaningful words, to replace words with a neutral meaning or with a pejorative meaning. This is often found in a professional name.

For example: in ancient China, "亲随", "随从" (accompanying the VM. "仆人" (servant)); "避俗" (avoiding the busy world of a VM. 和尚 (monk)); sometimes the title in combination with similar words such as "师" (scientist), "家" (specialist) shows respect for others: 船师 (teacher ship WM. 船工 "employee on the ship"), 罟师 (scientist in fishnets VM. 渔夫 (fishing)); in modern Chinese: 白衣天使 (angel in white WM. 医护人员 (nurses), 阿姨 (aunt out a blood knot VM. 保姆 (the nanny).

A domestic worker (housekeeper), an archangel (policeman), a eunuch (skopets), a castrated servant at the harem. A foreign language word from the Greek language)

6) self-deprecating expression

In the Chinese language, words with self-destructive coloring are widely used.

A self-deprecating expression shows politeness, modesty, respect and personality of the addressee.

卑人 (a simple man — I), 陛下 (stage under the throne of the Emperor), 不才 (stupid — I), 不佞 (not talented — I), 臣 (subordinate official — I), 寡人 (lone — self of the Emperor), 孤 (lonely), 老仆 (old servant is samonazvanie old), 末将 (soldiers, occupying the last place — self gerenal), and so on.

7) antonyms and antiphrases

Sometimes a taboo word and the corresponding euphemisms are mutually a pair of antonyms.

In Chinese, for well-being, sometimes "longevity" is used to refer to an object associated with death and a dying person: 寿材 (long-lasting material), 寿堂 (long-lasting hall), 寿衣 (long-lasting clothes); 白 (white wedding) in the meaning of a funeral; 走水 (water is coming) means a fire, the reason is that "water" and "fire" are mutual antonyms, 水祥 (happy prospect of water) denotes a flood, "happy is happiness" and "disaster" as antonyms;

In modern Chinese at the hospital 太平间 (room of peace) denotes the Lych-gate; 卫生间 (wet room) mean toilet; 享福去了 (go for happiness) to die.

Mortuary ("rest" and "path", apparently, do not coincide, to give your soul to God; bogova plot, bozhenivka, bozhya nivka mean a cemetery, go to happiness.

8) direct designation of taboo words

In some cases, the direct designation of taboo words can be euphemistic. It is basically divided into four subsections:

(1) words are used in the book style, in particular the terms;

In Chinese, it is a high-risk group in the meaning: homosexuals, prostitutes, beggars (People who are at risk of contracting any disease in the first place.)).

in Russian: pediculosis, bowel movements, a person with physical organicity.

(2) borrowed foreign-language synonyms;

Replacing unpleasant words with synonyms that do not cause unpleasant associations. This is the use of foreign language vocabulary. A word that may be taboo in one language becomes non-taboo when borrowed into another language, instead of being taboo in the original language. Borrowed synonyms from foreign languages are characterized by the fact that these words serve as alternatives to various concepts in different cultural contexts, that they are not euphemisms in the original language and that these borrowed words were selected for inclusion in the translation language already in accordance with political, economic, cultural, aesthetic and other standards and norms. In addition, borrowed words do not originate from the target language and do not make such a strong impression on native speakers of the target language. 拜拜 (bye-bye) right now. notation to get divorced; 浪漫(romance), 罗曼司(romance), в. straight. notation to have sex; WC (water closet) vm. toilet; TB (borrowed from English tuberculosis tuberculosis of the lungs; Ca or C (cancer) vm. cancer, these words are borrowed from English. There are also other foreign words from other foreign languages, for example ^{[10, p.22]}.

Conflict (vm. war, from English conflict), abnormal (vm. abnormal, from Greek abnormal), unsanitary (vm. dirty, unclean, from English unsanitary), agent (vm. spy, from Latin agent, agens — acting.

(3) reduction of the degree of meaning of words;

Reducing the degree of meaning of words means changing by reducing the degree of meaning of words that constantly cause unpleasant feelings in people, this is often found in the case of using adjectives and adverbs. In this case, the direct utterance of words with a negative coloring can be formed into euphemisms, i.e. the taboo words themselves are to some extent capable of being used as euphemisms.

In Chinese, an adjective or adverb is directly combined with adverbs of degree: 有 (a little), 稍微 (a little)

And in Russian and with the help of the suffix -ovat-, -enk- and so on and adverbs of degree: not very, a little, a little, barely, etc..

Bad (not very bad, pretty bad vm. bad), boring, silly, silly, blind, blind.

(4) the words of the "children's language";

In Chinese, there is a saying 童言无忌 means "the words of a child are blameless, do not contain evil." People prefer to treat children's language condescendingly. To some extent, this method is included in the phonetic medium.

咪咪 (Mi Mi) and 奶奶 (nai nai - milk! milk!) means mother's breast, i.e. women's breasts, 臭臭 (bad) means feces.

Some of these similar words can be considered onomatopoeic.

A-A –vm. straight. the designations urinate (urinate), defecate (defecate), feces., go for more, go, etc. — vm. defecate. Sic, pee-pee–wee. pee.

Conclusion

Comparing the above-mentioned examples in this chapter, we can assert that from the point of view of semantics, the following tools exist: 1) words with diffuse semantics: (1) pronominalization, in other words, replacing an unpleasant word with a pronoun, (2) antonomasia (replacing with a proper name), (3) ellipsis; 2) conceptual metaphor; 3) conceptual metonymy; 4) roundabout manner of expressing an opinion; 5) respectful expression; 6) self-deprecating expression; 7) antonyms and antiphrases; 8) direct designation of taboo words: (1) words are used in the book style, in particular terms, (2) borrowed foreign-language synonyms, (3) reduction of the degree of meaning of words, (4) words of "children's language".