The terminology base of profiling: comparative analysis and unification

Kulik Anna Valer'evna Director; ANO 'Scientific Research Center for Corporate Security' 43/1 Baumanskaya str., building 1, office 314, Moscow, 105005, Russia kulik@srccs.su

Profiling as a field of scientific knowledge and practical activity has undergone significant evolution in recent decades, expanding its boundaries from a highly specialized method in criminology to a comprehensive applied tool for analyzing behavior in various spheres of human activity. In the context of this transformation, there is an urgent need to revise and unify the terminology base of profiling, which determines the relevance of this study.

For a deeper understanding of the process of profiling formation and, as a result, the development of a unified approach to the terminological content of the definition of profiling, it is advisable to highlight the pre-institutional and institutional periods of its development.

The pre-institutional period is characterized by the absence of the term "profiling" itself. However, a scientific, methodological and empirical basis is being formed, which will become a decisive factor in the separation of profiling. Criminology, criminology, psychology, psychiatry and sociology play a significant role in this period; profiling during this period is virtually inseparable from them. Profiling at this stage is usually associated with the names of such scientists and representatives of professional fields as Hans Gross (1847-1915), Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909), Ernst Kretschmer (1888-1964), Thomas Bond (1841-1901) and Ernst Gennat (1880-1939). No less, and on some issues, more significant contributions were made by domestic researchers, among whom one can single out M.N. Gernet (1874-1953), who made a huge contribution to the development of understanding the psychological portrait of a criminal, G.I. Rossolimo (1860-1928), who became the author of several works under the general title "Psychological Profiles", P.B. Gannushkin (1875-1933), E.N. Krasnushkina (1885-1951) and many others. Specialists and scientists who were at the point of transition from the pre-institutional to the institutional period can be considered psychoanalyst Walter Langer, political psychologist Jerrold Post and psychiatrist James Broussel.

The institutional period. The process of institutionalization of profiling, according to consensus among experts and researchers in the field, has its origins in the forensic field. At this stage of evolution, profiling begins to differentiate as an independent method used in investigative practice, forming its own target and task structure, largely correlating with similar structures in criminology, criminology, operational investigative and investigative activities.

It is important to note that there is another position: the institutionalization of profiling began in the field of profiling political figures for the needs of intelligence activities in the middle of the twentieth century.

Obviously, the processes of profiling formation could take place in parallel in both the forensic and political intelligence spheres.

Within the framework of a comparative analysis of the terminology base of profiling and the unification of its conceptual apparatus, it is advisable to consider the contribution of key researchers who laid the foundation of this discipline, namely V. Langer, A. Broussel and D. Post in conjunction with later generations of researchers. This work also takes into account the positions of N. M. Rakityansky, R. L. Akhmedshin, N. N. Kitaev, Yu. M. Antonyan and other Russian scientists who have contributed to the scientific and methodological development of profiling.

Dr. Walter Langer made a significant contribution to the formation of the methodological apparatus of profiling. His work, implemented together with Professor Henry Murray, Dr. Ernst Chris and Dr. Bertram Levin, on the psychological profiling of Adolf Hitler (1943) ^[10] became a precedent for the use of psychoanalytic methods in the context of strategic personality analysis in the interests of intelligence activities. Langer introduced the concept of "psychological distance" into profiling, which contributed to the development of the terminology of remote profiling. His approach to integrating various sources of information (biographical information, public speaking, eyewitness accounts) laid the foundations for the interdisciplinary nature of profiling.

In addition, the innovative techniques used by V. Langer and his colleagues include:

· The high importance of the verification procedure for the information on which the analysis is based.

· Increasing the reliability of conclusions through the participation of several experts in the profiling process and the use of several methods for assessing psychological and behavioral characteristics of a person.

This is how Langer himself describes this process: "In other words, the psychoanalyst in his practice works on reliable material that ultimately allows solving the problem. Our case was different. All that we could offer the psychoanalyst to consider was a huge amount of raw material that was collected from a variety of sources. None of them were immediate. And this mass of raw material was not only superficial and fragmentary, but also static, and had nothing to do with the mental processes of a person faced with the extremes of life" ^{[4, p. 29]}.

It is worth noting that a significant number of researchers, when studying issues related to the history of profiling, consider Langer's work as a precursor to forensic profiling, which is not entirely correct. According to its task-target structure, as well as the logic of building the profiling process, V. Langer's approach was closer to the sphere of profiling political leaders.

Dr. Broussel also made a significant contribution to the formation and development of the conceptual apparatus of profiling, in particular the forensic field. The term "reverse psychology", introduced by him in 1956, became fundamental in the methodology of reconstructing the psychological portrait of an unidentified criminal. This concept provided a methodological basis for the systematic analysis of criminal behavior manifested in the traces of a committed crime in order to extrapolate the psychological characteristics of the subject.

The preferential mechanism used by Broussel deserves special attention, which later became an integral part of profiling ^[5]. The essence of this mechanism is to formulate conclusions based on available data, taking into account statistical patterns and probabilistic models, with subsequent refinement and adjustment of these conclusions as new information becomes available. This approach, first used by Broussel to compile a psychological portrait of a wanted criminal, continues to be used in modern profiling practice. Broussel initiated the development of a structured system for extracting criminal behavioral patterns from various sources, which contributed to the standardization of terminology in the field of forensic profiling.

Broussel's methodological approach to the analysis of the criminal's modus operandi was innovative for its time, characterized by innovation and complexity. Unlike his predecessors, Broussel applied a more extensive set of methods, which significantly increased the accuracy and speed of compiling psychological profiles. This methodological versatility became a distinctive feature of Broussel's approach and largely determined the further development of the American school of forensic profiling.

Dr. Jerrold Post ^{[14, 15]}, an American psychiatrist, made a significant contribution to the development and institutionalization of political profiling, significantly enriching its terminological and methodological apparatus. His more than twenty years of work as a CIA analyst and founder of the Center for Personality and Political Behavior Analysis (CAPPB) marked a new era in the integration of psychological concepts into the field of political analysis and intelligence activities.

Post developed and implemented a number of key concepts that significantly expanded the conceptual framework of the discipline. Among them, for example:

· "Psychobiographic personality reconstruction" is a method that allows you to deeply explore the personality of political figures through the prism of their life path, which became the heir to the well—known psychobiography long before the Post, solving more applied tasks in comparison with it.

· The "Integrated Psychodynamic approach" is a methodology that was successfully applied in the development of profiles of participants at the Camp David Summit in 1979. Jerrold Post combined disparate psychological, sociological and analytical concepts into a single integrated model for profiling political leaders.

Post's research in the field of the psychology of terrorism has enriched profiling with the concepts of "psychological motivation" and "group dynamics" previously known in psychology, which made it possible, for example, to analyze extremist behavior more effectively. His monographs, including "Leaders and their Supporters in a Dangerous World: the psychology of Political Behavior", "Psychological Assessment of Political Leaders", "Narcissism and Politics: Dreams of Glory", "Terrorist Thinking" and "Dangerous Charisma: the political Psychology of Donald Trump and his supporters", have become cornerstones in the formation of methodological the basics of political profiling.

The work of the Post at CAPPB, where he was the head of Walter Langer, from 1965 to 1986, ensured the continuity and development of the ideas of the early period of profiling. The high assessment of his work by US President Jimmy Carter after the Camp David summit underlines the practical importance of the methods developed by the Post for international diplomacy. Thanks to the innovative work of Jerrold Post, political profiling not only gained the status of an independent scientific discipline, but also received a developed terminological apparatus and methodological base, which significantly expanded the possibilities of applying psychological analysis in the field of politics, intelligence and international relations.

A comparative analysis of the work of these researchers allows us to trace the evolution of the terminology base of profiling from highly specialized psychoanalytic concepts to an interdisciplinary conceptual apparatus integrating elements of psychology, criminology, criminology, linguistics, psychiatry, political science and sociology. Their works laid the foundation for the unification of profiling terminology, contributing to its formation as an independent scientific discipline with its own methodological and conceptual tools. Subsequent research in the field of profiling has led to a significant expansion of the variability of interpretations of its essence. This polysemanticism is largely due to the specifics of the use of profiling methods in various fields: criminology, ensuring security in crowded places, business and politics.

The criminalistic approach considers profiling as a method of analyzing the behavior of a criminal manifested in the traces of a crime in order to identify its characteristics. Richard Kocish defines it as "a psychological method of evaluating the behavior of a criminal to identify characteristic features" ^{[9, p. 2]}, while Brent Turvey describes it as "a set of conclusions about the characteristics of the subject responsible for committing a crime" ^{[17, p. 32]}.

The behavioral approach, widely used in the field of aviation security, focuses on analyzing human behavior to identify potential threats. Carl Maccario ^[11] emphasizes the importance of analyzing nonverbal behavior and verbal reactions of passengers in this context. With this approach, it is possible to better understand the motivations and intentions of people, which allows for more effective measures to ensure flight safety.

The psychological approach presented in the works of Deborah Davis and William Follett ^[6] focuses on identifying psychological characteristics and motives, describing profiling as "the process of using behavioral evidence to form an idea of the identity of a criminal."

An integrated approach, most fully reflected in the definition of Eric Hickey ^[8], combines various aspects of analysis, including identification of personality characteristics, behavioral tendencies, geographical location and demographic characteristics of the offender. The purpose of this approach is to create the most complete picture of the analyzed subject, taking into account all possible factors that may affect his behavior. A comprehensive analysis allows you to get a more accurate idea of a person's motivations and intentions.

Mass profiling, described in Peter Neffenger's report ^[13], is a tactic for identifying individuals potentially prone to committing illegal actions based on certain behavioral characteristics in crowded places.

Despite the differences in approaches, common to all definitions of profiling is the desire to analyze people's behavior and characteristics in order to predict their possible actions or intentions. This makes profiling a universal tool applicable in a wide range of situations where the assessment and prediction of human behavior is required.

In a forensic context, developing the ideas of J. According to Broussel, the researchers focused on developing more detailed typologies of criminals and improving methods for analyzing behavioral patterns. This led to the formation of concepts such as "geographical profiling" (D.K. Rossmo ^[16]) and "the concept of an organized/disorganized criminal" (R. Ressler, J. Douglas ^[7]).

In the field of business, profiling has undergone a significant evolution, while maintaining the basic logic of "remote" assessment of human behavior and the general order of work. Modern business profiling is not limited to a narrow psychological analysis, but is a comprehensive approach integrating methodologies from various fields.

Key aspects of business profiling include:

· Analysis of consumer behavior, where concepts such as "behavioral marketing" have been formed.

· Assessment of the reliability of current or newly hired personnel, including an analysis of the "corporate culture profile".

· A detailed study of the context in which the profiled person functions, which implies an analysis of the socio-economic environment, corporate ecosystem, market conditions, legal restrictions, etc.

· Biographical analysis, borrowed from political profiling, used for a deep understanding of the motivation and behavioral patterns of key figures in business, using the results of OSINT events as a source of biographical information ^{[3, p. 101]}.

· The use of forensic profiling tools in corporate investigations and negotiation processes.

· Analysis of the "behavioral signature" of the profiled person, including not only psychological aspects, but also features of decision-making, communication style and leadership. Within the framework of modern profiling, the analysis of the "behavioral signature" of the profiled subject is a comprehensive methodological approach that integrates psychological aspects, cognitive decision-making patterns, communicative strategies and leadership competencies. This concept, considered in detail in the analytical report of the ANO "NITSKB" "Profiling: history, theory, practice" [3. p. 62], is a synthesis of theoretical propositions outlined by U. Michel and Yu. Shoda (Walter Mischel and Yuichi Shoda) in their fundamental work "A Cognitive-Affective System Theory of Personality: Conceptualizing Situations, Dispositions, Dynamics, and Invariance in Personality Structure" ^[12], with terminology borrowed from the field of cybersecurity. The introduction of the term "behavioral signature" into the scientific discourse of profiling is intended to create a scientific analogue of the concept of "behavioral trace" used today, which is journalistic.

Business profiling has developed into a multifaceted discipline synthesizing psychological profiling methodologies with tools of economic analysis, organizational psychology and management, legal expertise and interview and negotiation tactics. This synthesis allows you to create comprehensive profiles of both individuals (employees, customers, partners) and entire organizations, which significantly increases the effectiveness of strategic decision-making in the business environment and increases interest in researching the problems of profiling in business not only from the professional community, but also among business representatives.

Political profiling, largely based on the fundamental works of J. It has evolved into a comprehensive system of analysis of political actors, systems and social movements. The key trends in the assessment of political personality, which were formed in the 1970s, continue to have a significant impact on modern approaches. The systematization of methodologies presented in the authoritative collection of J. The post "Psychological assessment of political leaders" (2003) ^[14] reflects the versatility of modern political profiling. The author highlights the following main directions:

1. Integral methods:

· Psychobiographic/Psychodynamic profiling (Post, 2003);

· Psychoanalytically oriented character and activity assessment (Renshon, 2003);

2. Trait/motivational approaches:

· Analysis of verbal behavior (Weintraub, 2003);

· Motivational Analysis (Winter, 2003);

· Analysis of leadership style based on personality traits (Hermann, 2003);

3. Cognitive methodologies:

· Operational Code Analysis (Walker, 2003);

· Evaluation of integrative complexity (Suedfeld, Guttieri, & Tetlock, 2003).

These approaches, integrating psychological concepts with political science analysis, have allowed the development of such areas as "profiling of political regimes" (regime profiling) and "analysis of socio-political sentiment" (socio-political sentiment analysis). Integral psychodynamic approaches, in particular, provided a methodological basis for a comprehensive analysis of the personality of political leaders, their motives and behavioral patterns in the context of political systems and processes.

This diversification of approaches has led to the formation of interdisciplinary fields of research integrating profiling methodologies with the tools of related sciences. For example, digital profiling uses big data analysis techniques to create psychological portraits based on an individual's digital footprint.

It should be noted that in the Russian research literature there are different interpretations of the content of the concept of "profiling". For example, E. S. Ivanova defines profiling as "a procedure for non-hardware detection of false, intentionally distorted information based on verbal and non-verbal signs" ^{[1, p. 95]}. This definition significantly narrows the scope of profiling, in fact identifying it with the process of identifying signs of hidden information in human behavior (lie detection). This approach ignores both the history of profiling and the wide range of tasks solved by profiling at the current stage of its development, including personality analysis, behavior forecasting and assessment of potential behavioral risks. Profiling is not limited to detecting lies (and does not set this as the main goal), but is a comprehensive method of analyzing a person's personality and behavior in various contexts. E. S. Ivanova's definition does not take into account the use of profiling in criminology, psychology, security services and other fields, where it is used not only to identify lies, but primarily to create psychological portraits, assess risks and predict the actions of individuals.

Another definition proposed by V. A. Kudin and V. M. Statin defines profiling as "a system for preventing illegal actions through profiling, i.e. identifying potentially dangerous persons based on non-verbal and operational diagnostics" ^{[2, p. 5]}. Further, they expand this definition to include the assessment and prediction of human behavior based on various characteristics, such as manifestations of the autonomic nervous system, emotional states, speech and appearance characteristics. Although this definition is broader than the previous one, it still does not cover the entirety of profiling as a discipline. The main disadvantage is that it narrows the scope of profiling to the prevention of illegal actions and the identification of potentially dangerous persons. This approach ignores the use of profiling in other areas, such as marketing, political analysis, or human resources management.

In addition, this definition does not take into account the importance of studying the biography of the subject, analyzing the social and cultural context, as well as other factors that may be critical to creating a complete and accurate profile. For example, in political profiling, taking into account political culture and historical context may be no less important than analyzing nonverbal behavior.

Based on the analysis of the above sources, it seems justified to propose a more universal definition of profiling, which would reflect its modern essence and versatility of application: "Profiling is an integrated method of applied risk–oriented behavioral analysis." This definition requires detailed consideration and justification of each of its key components. This definition has been developed taking into account the versatility and breadth of profiling applications in various fields. Each element of the definition has its own meaning for a complete understanding of the essence of profiling.

The term "integrative" (or "integrated", which may be more correct from a philological point of view) reflects the interdisciplinary nature of profiling and indicates that profiling combines methods and tactics from various fields of knowledge, creating a holistic approach to behavior analysis.

The definition of profiling as an "applied" method emphasizes its practical orientation. This distinguishes profiling from purely theoretical approaches such as psychoanalysis or academic behavior research. Profiling is always focused on solving specific practical problems.

The "risk-oriented" aspect of the definition reflects a key feature of profiling – the focus on identifying and assessing potential risks and threats. This applies to all major areas of profiling use: in criminology, behavioral risks that led to the commission of a crime are searched; in political analysis, vulnerabilities and opportunities for manipulation are identified; in mass profiling, signs of behavioral threats that can lead to the commission of an illegal action in a crowded place are identified. It is important to note here that the marketing attractiveness of profiling has led to the emergence of those who have expanded the scope of its applicability to, for example, family relations, which is not entirely correct given the history of the origin of profiling and the absence of a therapeutic component among the purposes of its application.

The inclusion of the term "behavioral analysis" emphasizes that the main object of study in profiling is precisely human behavior in all its manifestations. The proposed definition covers the key aspects of profiling, avoiding the limitations and disadvantages inherent in the previously considered definitions.

In addition, today it is advisable to consider profiling as a field of professional activity, scientific and educational disciplines.

The conducted research allows us to conclude that profiling is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon characterized by a number of key features. First of all, it should be noted that there is a significant expansion in the variability of interpretations of the essence of profiling, due to its application in various fields, including criminology, business and politics. This polysemanticism reflects not only the flexibility and adaptability of profiling as a method of analyzing behavior, but also its ability to evolve in accordance with the needs of various fields of human activity.

The integrated nature of profiling is manifested in its unique ability to synthesize methods and tactics from various fields of knowledge, such as psychology, psychiatry, criminology, criminology and sociology. This property allows us to form an integrated approach to analyzing the behavior of individuals and groups, which significantly increases the effectiveness and accuracy of forecasts. It is this integration of various scientific disciplines that makes profiling a powerful tool in the hands of specialists, capable of revealing deep motives and patterns of behavior.

The pronounced practice-oriented nature of profiling emphasizes its applied nature, which radically distinguishes it from purely theoretical approaches to the study of behavior. This feature determines the high demand for profiling in situations requiring operational analysis and decision-making. The ability to quickly adapt to real conditions and provide specific, practical results makes profiling an indispensable tool in various professional fields.

The fundamental characteristic of profiling is its risk-based approach, reflecting both the historical development of this discipline and modern areas of its application. In criminology, this is manifested in the search for behavioral risks and causes of crimes, in political analysis – in identifying vulnerabilities, recruitment vulnerabilities and potential points of manipulative influence, and in the field of public security – in identifying signs of threat in the behavior of individuals in a particular place of mass gathering. This approach makes it possible not only to analyze current situations, but also to predict potential risks, which is invaluable for preventive measures in various fields.